Heuristic (from Greek: Heuriskein which means finding). So the stage heuristic is an activity to collect source historian, traces - traces the history is required. If we remember that history is made up so many periods with all aspects of life such as: political, economic, social, cultural, legal, military, agriculture and so on, then we perrlu seek diverse sources.
For ease in a study, the source - the source of such a complex history of many species that need diklerifikasi. Therefore, in the discussion of historical sources have described various types of historical sources.
A. Some basic statement.
Before we do the research and writing of history, especially the activities of gathering resources - resources history, there are some important notes that the capital to become a professional historian.
1. Historian "Ideal"
A historian is ideal both as a historian researcher (professional historian, or the practitioner's history) as well as historians of educators (teachers of history), need to have the background, ability, attitude or faith that becomes completeness.
2. Six Step study
a. Choosing an appropriate object;
b. Investigate all evidence relevant to the topic;
c. Make notes about what it considered important and relevant to the topic that was found when the study is in progress.
d. Critically evaluate all the evidence it has collected;
e. Compiling the results - the results of research into a pattern that is true;
f. Presenting in a way that can attract attention and communicate to the reader.
3. Choosing Topics
a. Value (Value)
Topics that should be able to give an explanation for a significant and in the sense of a universal, aspects of human experience perhaps through case study approach or by demonstrating its relationship with the larger movement.
b. Authenticity (Originality)
If the selected subjects have been studied in earlier research, you must make sure that you can display one - or both:
1) New evidence is very substantial and signifiakan, or a
2) Interpretasibaru of evidence that is valid and can be given.
c. Practicality (Practicality)
1) The existence of sources - sources that can be obtained without any difficulty which is not rational.
2) The ability to use the correct source - the source of it based on your educational background or previous.
3) Room includes peneitian.
d. Unity (Unity)
Each study must have a unified theme or directed to a unified theme or directed to a question or a proportion of the round, which will give researchers a starting point, a forward direction to a specific destination, and sutu hope or promise that would give birth to conclusions - conclusions that special.
Kamis, 20 Januari 2011
HISTORICAL FACT
A. Basic trust history
The term knowledge is sometimes limited only by what we learn from experience or reason, not of belief. Logical knowledge is included in the distance, which means all of the facts and the truth is restrained from the human mind, not convoluted - convolution of the source obtained. The knowledge which we call as historical documents or historical knowledge, almost entirely disarkan on trust, which might be an affirmation, a mental assent to a truth or a fact on the word or other experts. There are 2 parts preformance in the process. A person (witness, informant) convey knowledge and someone (who believe) accept it. Actual communication of knowledge or testimony may indicate the contents of the delivery of knowledge.
The incident happened as history in an objective sense is no longer possible or experienced repeated again, but the marks as a memory can be disclosed or actualized. Disclosure form again is a statement (statement) about the incident. Thus, it is clear that the facts have been the product of mental processes (historian) or memorisasi. Therefore, essentially the fact also is subjective, includes elements of the subject.
There are a few things to note before we trust the testimony of the witness:
• Before accepting the testimony of witnesses, we must have some way of confirming what he really - really or can be as alleged to have knowledge of the testimony which he gave.
• A witness must be good faith, must have a purpose and a desire to tell the truth and report the facts as known. Honesty is the most basic of all requirements for qualification of a witness.
• Communication actual knowledge to others. People with knowledge of the best and probably intends to prove his possessions are not satisfying the deadline for testimony. Got a memory shortage, the power statement is incomplete and behaviors that are not aware that tall - exaggerated. This can lead to the testimony of one's hard to believe.
Trust is an absolute condition of social life every day. Greatest proportion of each person gained knowledge not from experience or personal reasons remain with the trust given by others. Together with the confidence of witnesses, only the facts that determine his testimony.
The motive of a trust is the main idea contained in the trust to accept because something is true, the world or other. On the other hand the trust not only directly sourced to the witness but also evidence - evidence that can be produced for the honesty or the truth of what he said. The possibility is often the case, with the help of a reference writer, which is given in a footnote to return to the main source of his statement, which often needs to be done in small problems or doubts.
B. Basic - Basic certainty history
The main function of the methodology is to identify ways and means of delivery history, which can be found or be interpreted as a firm approval from the mind to the historical data without fear because of the wrong reasons.
Based on the natural motives which are unfounded, certainty may be moral, physical and meta physical.
a. Motif work or justify
Moral certainty is known as the uniform or announce some of the moral law. History is largely a problem of confidence in the other testimony, and as testimony is an issue that is conditioned by its very basic moral laws, for most of the certainty of history is the history that exists. Certainty can be achieved in the history of frequent outcome of a series of possibilities that centralized, that gives the highest possibility that rare indistinguishable from certainty, and so the logicians often call it "moral certainty". Moral certainty as it applies in history, perhaps best defined as "an assurance that exclude all reasonable doubt,"
b. Certainty is the command history when the basic physical or motif is a uniform operation of known physical laws. Physical laws and conditions of the game which is an important part in the assessment of critical evidence. For example, we know that the time spent in one trip should be conditioned by the distance to be covered and transportation equipment are available.
c. Metaphysical certainty discover the basics of an absolute principle in its applications, do not admit exceptions. That sort of thing is the principle of contradiction / opposition ("the one thing that can not exist and no at the same time") and sufficient reason ("no one is without a sufficient reason," a principle of different causes). The possibility of metaphysical certainty in history it is reductive in character, for instance: "A historical facts which are stated without evidence reported by several independent witnesses. But their consent may not be explained except by the objective truth of the facts that are reported (the principle of sufficient reason). Consequently the fact A is said it must be metaphysical. ".
The facts are impossible to build (in history) is especially cover a wide space or time (sometimes referred to as general facts), customs, doctrine, istitusi, big event, the fact it is easier to observe than others and is now much easier to prove. In the case of ancient and medieval times, pemgetahuan history is limited to the facts common to the scarcity of documents. Basics of certainty is the experience of one's personal history, or the testimony of another person. Private practice, where experience exists, can be hung as a source of specific knowledge.
Sumber :
Garaghan, Gilbert. 1957. A Guide to Historical Method. New York: Fordham U.P.
Kartodirdjo, Sartono. 1992. Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial Dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta : Gramedia Pustaka Utama
U.P.Hugiono. 1992. Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta
The term knowledge is sometimes limited only by what we learn from experience or reason, not of belief. Logical knowledge is included in the distance, which means all of the facts and the truth is restrained from the human mind, not convoluted - convolution of the source obtained. The knowledge which we call as historical documents or historical knowledge, almost entirely disarkan on trust, which might be an affirmation, a mental assent to a truth or a fact on the word or other experts. There are 2 parts preformance in the process. A person (witness, informant) convey knowledge and someone (who believe) accept it. Actual communication of knowledge or testimony may indicate the contents of the delivery of knowledge.
The incident happened as history in an objective sense is no longer possible or experienced repeated again, but the marks as a memory can be disclosed or actualized. Disclosure form again is a statement (statement) about the incident. Thus, it is clear that the facts have been the product of mental processes (historian) or memorisasi. Therefore, essentially the fact also is subjective, includes elements of the subject.
There are a few things to note before we trust the testimony of the witness:
• Before accepting the testimony of witnesses, we must have some way of confirming what he really - really or can be as alleged to have knowledge of the testimony which he gave.
• A witness must be good faith, must have a purpose and a desire to tell the truth and report the facts as known. Honesty is the most basic of all requirements for qualification of a witness.
• Communication actual knowledge to others. People with knowledge of the best and probably intends to prove his possessions are not satisfying the deadline for testimony. Got a memory shortage, the power statement is incomplete and behaviors that are not aware that tall - exaggerated. This can lead to the testimony of one's hard to believe.
Trust is an absolute condition of social life every day. Greatest proportion of each person gained knowledge not from experience or personal reasons remain with the trust given by others. Together with the confidence of witnesses, only the facts that determine his testimony.
The motive of a trust is the main idea contained in the trust to accept because something is true, the world or other. On the other hand the trust not only directly sourced to the witness but also evidence - evidence that can be produced for the honesty or the truth of what he said. The possibility is often the case, with the help of a reference writer, which is given in a footnote to return to the main source of his statement, which often needs to be done in small problems or doubts.
B. Basic - Basic certainty history
The main function of the methodology is to identify ways and means of delivery history, which can be found or be interpreted as a firm approval from the mind to the historical data without fear because of the wrong reasons.
Based on the natural motives which are unfounded, certainty may be moral, physical and meta physical.
a. Motif work or justify
Moral certainty is known as the uniform or announce some of the moral law. History is largely a problem of confidence in the other testimony, and as testimony is an issue that is conditioned by its very basic moral laws, for most of the certainty of history is the history that exists. Certainty can be achieved in the history of frequent outcome of a series of possibilities that centralized, that gives the highest possibility that rare indistinguishable from certainty, and so the logicians often call it "moral certainty". Moral certainty as it applies in history, perhaps best defined as "an assurance that exclude all reasonable doubt,"
b. Certainty is the command history when the basic physical or motif is a uniform operation of known physical laws. Physical laws and conditions of the game which is an important part in the assessment of critical evidence. For example, we know that the time spent in one trip should be conditioned by the distance to be covered and transportation equipment are available.
c. Metaphysical certainty discover the basics of an absolute principle in its applications, do not admit exceptions. That sort of thing is the principle of contradiction / opposition ("the one thing that can not exist and no at the same time") and sufficient reason ("no one is without a sufficient reason," a principle of different causes). The possibility of metaphysical certainty in history it is reductive in character, for instance: "A historical facts which are stated without evidence reported by several independent witnesses. But their consent may not be explained except by the objective truth of the facts that are reported (the principle of sufficient reason). Consequently the fact A is said it must be metaphysical. ".
The facts are impossible to build (in history) is especially cover a wide space or time (sometimes referred to as general facts), customs, doctrine, istitusi, big event, the fact it is easier to observe than others and is now much easier to prove. In the case of ancient and medieval times, pemgetahuan history is limited to the facts common to the scarcity of documents. Basics of certainty is the experience of one's personal history, or the testimony of another person. Private practice, where experience exists, can be hung as a source of specific knowledge.
Sumber :
Garaghan, Gilbert. 1957. A Guide to Historical Method. New York: Fordham U.P.
Kartodirdjo, Sartono. 1992. Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial Dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta : Gramedia Pustaka Utama
U.P.Hugiono. 1992. Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta
Interpretation
In the writing of history there are three basic forms of technical writing that description, narration, and analysis. When historians write - actually a desire to explain (explanation) of history - there are two main impulse that moved him re-create (re-create) and interpret (interpret). The first impulse demanded description and narration, while the second drive demand analysis. Historians oriented historical sources only, will use the narrative portion of the description and more, while the problem-oriented historians, in addition to using description and narration, will give more priority to the analysis. But whatever way is used, it will lead to the synthesis.
When the historians write, consciously or not, recognized or not, stated explicitly or implicitly, they hold on to any one or combination of several specific philosophy of history which became the basis penafisirannya. For historians who are reluctant to use the term philosophy of history. It might be called "acua work" (frame of reference), "attention" (Interest), or "pressure" (emphasis). The philosophy of history aims to give the meaning or significance to the whole history of human activity, the pattern of uniformity (uniformity) and diversity (variety) of the motions of human activities in the past. Thus the philosophy of history is:
1. A guide (guide) for a valid interpretation of historical material;
2. An understanding of the causes and significance (significance) of the events and institutions recorded in historical materials.
As for who can be considered as factors, forces and equipment and is fundamental in human history:
1. Human
History is the study of human activities which is the manifestation of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the past. Thus the human factor and the main stakeholders.
2. Geography
Earth represents the physical world in which human life and history of the place; earth or the world is often likened to a stage of human history and as the holder of the main roles.
3. Culture
Cultural environment in which humans live in it. Human beings generally require the needs of primary and secondary in order to survive and improve their standard of living.
4. Supernatural or Merafisik
Because humans are creatures of God, the origins and purpose of life is determined by him, so for people who believe, God has an interest in this world, in humans and their activities.
Forms deterministrik interpretation is:
1. Historians of the type of social Darwinism mean to shrink into a history of physical science by choosing something physical in human beings (ethnological, descent, race) as the controlling factor in the history of communities and nations.
2. Geographical Interpretation
These historians also see the group in terms of physical as makers of history and thus belittles the role of humans. They are looking for history key in the physical environment outside of humans, such as geographical factors: climate, soil.
3. Economic Interpretation
Another philosophy of history is also deterministic mode of production (made of production) in the economic life of a nation determines the general character of the nation's history such as patterns of political, social, religious, cultural.
4. The interpretation of "Big Man"
Historians of the Romantic as two British historian Thomas Carlyle and James A. Froude argued that the main causal factors in the development of historical figures is a great man.
5. Spiritula or idealistic interpretation
This interpretation is closely related to the role of the soul, the idea of man in historical development.
6. Interpretation of Science and Technology
This interpretation is trying to see that human progress has a direct relationship with the natural sciences and technology advancement.
7. Sociological Interpretation
This interpretation is trying to look at the origin, structure and activities of human society preformance its interaction with its physical environment, society and physical environment jointly developed in a process of evolution.
8. Interpretation Synthesis
This interpretation is trying to combine all the factors or which become the driving force of history.
When the historians write, consciously or not, recognized or not, stated explicitly or implicitly, they hold on to any one or combination of several specific philosophy of history which became the basis penafisirannya. For historians who are reluctant to use the term philosophy of history. It might be called "acua work" (frame of reference), "attention" (Interest), or "pressure" (emphasis). The philosophy of history aims to give the meaning or significance to the whole history of human activity, the pattern of uniformity (uniformity) and diversity (variety) of the motions of human activities in the past. Thus the philosophy of history is:
1. A guide (guide) for a valid interpretation of historical material;
2. An understanding of the causes and significance (significance) of the events and institutions recorded in historical materials.
As for who can be considered as factors, forces and equipment and is fundamental in human history:
1. Human
History is the study of human activities which is the manifestation of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the past. Thus the human factor and the main stakeholders.
2. Geography
Earth represents the physical world in which human life and history of the place; earth or the world is often likened to a stage of human history and as the holder of the main roles.
3. Culture
Cultural environment in which humans live in it. Human beings generally require the needs of primary and secondary in order to survive and improve their standard of living.
4. Supernatural or Merafisik
Because humans are creatures of God, the origins and purpose of life is determined by him, so for people who believe, God has an interest in this world, in humans and their activities.
Forms deterministrik interpretation is:
1. Historians of the type of social Darwinism mean to shrink into a history of physical science by choosing something physical in human beings (ethnological, descent, race) as the controlling factor in the history of communities and nations.
2. Geographical Interpretation
These historians also see the group in terms of physical as makers of history and thus belittles the role of humans. They are looking for history key in the physical environment outside of humans, such as geographical factors: climate, soil.
3. Economic Interpretation
Another philosophy of history is also deterministic mode of production (made of production) in the economic life of a nation determines the general character of the nation's history such as patterns of political, social, religious, cultural.
4. The interpretation of "Big Man"
Historians of the Romantic as two British historian Thomas Carlyle and James A. Froude argued that the main causal factors in the development of historical figures is a great man.
5. Spiritula or idealistic interpretation
This interpretation is closely related to the role of the soul, the idea of man in historical development.
6. Interpretation of Science and Technology
This interpretation is trying to see that human progress has a direct relationship with the natural sciences and technology advancement.
7. Sociological Interpretation
This interpretation is trying to look at the origin, structure and activities of human society preformance its interaction with its physical environment, society and physical environment jointly developed in a process of evolution.
8. Interpretation Synthesis
This interpretation is trying to combine all the factors or which become the driving force of history.
Muslims in Africa
a. Mauritania
Mauritania is a country that shows the integration of the most powerful in terms of ethnic identity, national and state identity. Population is entirely Muslim country and identify itself as an Islamic state. Through the treaty of Paris a number of European powers recognize the government of France for Senegal and several regions in the Atlantic Sahara, including some territory that is now a territory of Mauritania. French presence strongly affected the Mauritanian political system. France looked Hassani tribes as political elites, provide subsidies to them, institutionalize their authority as a liaison between the French government and the public.
France also stop the activity that requires citizens of the traditional perampsan Hassani took over grazing and trading activities. This ni resulted in their neglect of religious tribalism which is a part of their traditional functions. Between 1902 and Mauritania in 1934 against the melting away into the French empire. A series of local insurgency can be defeated by the French causing people to stop the rebellion and accept Mauritania collaboration with the French to protect their economic interests and religious.
By the independence of Mauritania, appears much the party among the people of Mauritania. These parties include, Entente Mouritanienne which was established in 1948. The party opposition from Progressiste Mouritanienne Union (UPM). UPM own party split and there is a break-away and formed the Association de la Jeunesse Mouritanienne more loudly demanding independence. The formation of various parties in Mauritania showed that there were disputes within Mauritanian society between the traditional elite and modern politicians. But the main issue is how to preserve the identity of Mauritania to avoid absorption into the Arab nations of North Morocco or Senegal and Sudan in the south. Mauritania's independence in 1958 as the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.
Mauritania's independence by having a unitary national elite who rule society are very segmenter. After independence there unification of political parties between the Entente and UPM, thus forming a new party called Parti du Regroupement Mouritanienne. But in 1961 changed its name to Mouritanienne People Party. Thus the traditional segmenter communities in Mauritania community has been united in a single regime. The divisions of society traisional slowly be overcome through the establishment of a more unified community under a single regime that uses a metropolitan language and promises of Islamic identity.
b. Senegal
Senegal is basically a non-Muslim secular regime that ruled most of the Muslim population. Although this regime is influenced by the political culture of Europe and run by non-Muslim elites, most educated population in tariqat Sufi. Senegal is run through a collaboration between state elites and elite Sufi. Senegal represents an effort to recycle the classic pattern of supportive relations between Muslim countries and Muslim communal organizations.
French government helped support the spread of Islam. By taking a pragmatic attitude towards the Muslims and to regard them as highly civilized group, patterned live productive and capable in the field of administration. French Muslims use as a clerk, and made the village heads sebaga intermediaries and allow running the Islamic law. Under the French government scholars to wander from one place to another, to convey instruction, founded the school and formed the Muslim societies. Despite this worrying French Muslims as their political opponents. For that France tried to keep the Muslim forces are not organized and remains under French control.
France create a law school teacher nyang requires obtaining a permit and memilikii proficiency in speaking French. In 1908 France banned the circulation of newspapers in Arabic and try to develop ethnic and territorial organizations to break the Muslim community. In 1911 the French language shall be used in the Muslim judiciary and the trustee is prohibited to collect zakat. All of the above done to prevent the power of united Islamic community becomes larger.
But all policies are not applied consistently, because after World War I France to switch to policies that provide support for selectively terhdap Muslim figures. As a reward behind it, the Sufi support French efforts in creating a calm situation, army units gather, collect taxes and to increase agricultural production. Muslim elites adjust to the reality of the French government to stop political militancy which was replaced with the activities of worship, education, business economy and establish Muslim tariqat structure.
Tariqat largest and famous in Senegal is Tariqat Muridiyah founded in 1886 by Ahmad Bamba a guardian of the Wolof. He believes the war against France is a vain thing and recommend to switch from war to another job. Sheikh Ibra Fall a Mantang fighters who swear allegiance to Ahmad Bamba, trying to followers of its military into the tariqat Muridiyah. Compliance Ibra Fall marks the colonial domination and the Muslim leadership as the main requirement for the preservation of Wolof society. A mutually supportive relationship between spiritual power and temporal power tariqat endorse the establishment of a more persuasive for a number of Senegalese citizens.
But Ahmad Bamba in a long time suspected by the French as a disseminator of political and territorial aspirations. Because of this he was often exiled in 1895, 1902 and 1907. But in France tahun1912 party can accept that he was a spiritual leader and let him return to economic and Diourbel.
Indeed most of the supporters Tariqat Muridiyah are farmers, but also attract sympathy tariqat people who do not own the land, the young unemployed who worked an internship in agricultural societies. This resulted among supporters tariqat Muridiyah become very popular. In 1912 tariqat has 68,000 supporters and supporters in 1960 grew to 400,000 members. At that moment a third of the citizen-eighth Wolof and Senegalese citizens to be members of this tariqat.
In this tariqat practice of Islam is less important. Although they are fasting of Ramadan, but the obligatory prayers and fasting are other less dperhatikan. Tariqat Fall (muridiyah branch) is strikingly non-orthodox and non-compromise. The descendants of Ibrahim fall not perform Islamic prayers or rituals lainny, but they believe the attitude of resignation and work, and through gentle attitude and practice of magic they could gain the blessings of religion.
At the same time when society was organized by the Senegalese Sufi tariqat, among professional and non-Muslim urban elite took over the struggle for independence. Senegal has a history rooted political elite sejaj 19th century. Elite Senegal involved in the government of France, was working in Europe and eventually inherited the power of the state. With the dawn of Senegal's independence in 1960, Senegal was ruled by non-Muslim elite French education that dipimin by Leopold Senghor and Progressiste Senegalaise Union party. But Senegal is a country where people united by language Wolof is used by 80% of the population and because most of the citizens of Senegal is Muslim.
Senegal is an independent government headed by a president elected who raised a number of ministers. Inside there is an autonomous court. Senghor led from 1960 until 1980. In 1964, Senghor menkonsolidasi strengths and eliminate its opponents, in 1966 he decided to Senegal as a one-party socialist state. 1966 to 1976 UPS became the sole legal party in the country of Senegal, and a number of tariqat unite ourselves as a faction within the ruling party. From the years 1976-1980 Senghir allow the formation of multi-party politics and elections. After the dismissal of Senghor, Senegal was ruled for the first time a Muslim is Abdu Diouf.
Post-independence Senegal is a secular country ayang overwhelmingly Muslim. This population was organized into a number of Sufi tariqat which is a base for rural economic organizations for the citizens. Regime of the country is run in collaboration with religious leaders who became an intermediary with the public. A number of Sufi tariqat economic organizing prodiuktif nuts and gives political support to officials in the interior. Muslim Tariqat subsequently become an integral part of Senegal's political system.
At the same time, urbanization that occurred in Senegal, causing rapid population growth began to doubt authority figures magical hinterland. In some cities show interest in the Arabic language and forms of Islamic belief that the practice of emphasizing prayer, pilgrimage, ethical behavior, and intellectual interests adjacent to the suppression of religious emotion. The move was to form the Muslim Cultural Union (Muslim cultural associations) in 1953. Society is sponsoring the teaching of Arabic and Muslim schools, against colonialism, capitalism, and the influence of Sufi inland.
c. Nigeria
Islam in northern Nigeria has evolved as the religion of the elite since the 15th century. Sokoto Caliphate consolidate the identity of the Muslim political elite and make Islam the religion of the majority population. The emir is responsible for implementing justice, they raised Mallam as the prayer leader, led in the celebration and suggestions regarding religious law. Unofficially the emirs became an arbiter in local disputes.
In 1922 the British built as a high school college Katsina modern. English lessons be compulsory, and the Arabic language is inserted into part of the curriculum. Teaching Quran delivered by the Mallam to the salary of the British government. Kano Law School curriculum taught entirely Islamic. Although politically conservative, the British government evoke major changes in the economic and social. Development of road and rail network, development of agricultural exports such as nuts and cotton, farmers deliver northern Nigeria to the international market.
Economic development raises many important changes in social structure. Kano became the center of northern Nigeria market and as a thriving merchant center. Thus, the city population was divided into many ethnic groups, languages, and class. The structure is divided into an elite class of the ruling Fulani, Hausa traders wealthy, senior civil servants, middle-class merchants and the general public.
Over a century more, Lagos became the main center and the movement of the Muslim community. In 1861 the city became part of British kkoloni. The British help resolve disputes among Muslims and establish a reputation because of being impartial in resolving the internal matters of Muslims. British officials even protect a number of mosques. British Party raises big challenge against a Muslim community by introducing the system of Western education and Christian Education. Therefore, when in 1896 the UK to form a government that provides subsidies Muslim schools with system mix between Western and Muslim curriculum, then the Muslims respond to this as a cultural threat to the West and Christianity and establish their own educational community.
Ibadan town illustrates the different types of Muslim structures. Before the independence of Nigeria, Ibadan has two communities, ie communities Yoruba and Hausa communities. Yoruba Muslim Communist-organized under the authority of a faith and a few leaders to subordinates. Nonetheless, the Muslim community living-Yoruba are not exclusively but rather undergo a good social relations with non-Muslim Yoruba people, including carrying out joint ceremonies in churches and mosques. In addition to the Muslim community, there are also Yoruba Hausa Muslim community.
In the 12th century life in Ibadan Hausa rulers formed a settlement to their own, inhabited by migrants from northern Nigeria, the wives and their gunddik. The British and the majority of the Yoruba support embentukan settlement under a chieftain Hausa as a way to curb migrant communities bum yanh not only involve the vendor, including the merchant, even the thieves, beggars and other persons with social problems.
In the 1940s and 1950s society dominated by village heads and landlords are disturbed by the rise of nationalist movements. Disintregasi Inngris power to force Hausa parati obtain the support of political parties in Nigeria. This would threaten the solidarity kelangsungangan Hausa Hausa and trade monopolies. Thus between 1950 and 1952, after Ibrahim Niass inspired by the visit, the entire Hausa community to join fully with tariqat Tijaniah. The new religious consciousness is also changing the nature of authority in a Hausa community. Now Mallan have an important role as a teacher to straighten out the Muslim religious practices.
Establishment of a national state that leads the country north and south to the same political framework is very conspicuous in the changing political Islam. Nigerian state itself has a history full of riot. Because of the strengthening atnis differences, religious and regional differences, it is very difficult to attempt unification of north and south into nigeri independence. Merseka Nigeria in 1960, but in 1965 a number of government failures and abuses of politicians almost arouse the hostility of all walks of life. In 1966 a variety of turmoil across the country, and perlawananterhadap federal government and the western region, deliver general Ivonsi gain power of government. He attempted to unite the civil service in some wilyah as an attempt to give power to citizens Ibo country. subsequently a number of riots led Colonel Gowon came to power, which memaklumatkan a new constitution that divides Nigeria into twelve small states to meet the interests of minorities and reducing power blocks north and south.
Furthermore, between 1970 and 1975 a number of anxiety southern region of northern domination sparked a new rebellion triggered because of the cooperation between countries north and the existence of a census which showed that the northern region has the majority of the population. In 1976, Gowon's regime was overthrown and replaced by a new government military. After several years vacillated between federal and unitary state concept of Nigeria, the constitutional commission to try to create a national party system, jabatab preisden strong, and the diversity of local small countries who can not resist the central government. In the 1979 general election the party promised menyatukn most private companies and state support for the occupation of state for education. National Party of Nigeria, representing a number of Muslim elites in the north won yet, a new coup in 1984 to return to military rule, Nigeria has not found a stable government, both military and civilian. Behind this instibalitas military post in 1966 to progressively strengthen the country Nigeria. The exploitation of Nigeria led to revenue is very much on the federal state. Political context is changing very striking has changed the role of Islam in Nigeria as a whole.
Then in the 1970s a number of northern Muslim elites have allied with the non-Muslim south to maintain their political positions. Thus in the 1970's there has been increased attention to Nigeria's national identity, as a rival religious and territorial bonds
Mauritania is a country that shows the integration of the most powerful in terms of ethnic identity, national and state identity. Population is entirely Muslim country and identify itself as an Islamic state. Through the treaty of Paris a number of European powers recognize the government of France for Senegal and several regions in the Atlantic Sahara, including some territory that is now a territory of Mauritania. French presence strongly affected the Mauritanian political system. France looked Hassani tribes as political elites, provide subsidies to them, institutionalize their authority as a liaison between the French government and the public.
France also stop the activity that requires citizens of the traditional perampsan Hassani took over grazing and trading activities. This ni resulted in their neglect of religious tribalism which is a part of their traditional functions. Between 1902 and Mauritania in 1934 against the melting away into the French empire. A series of local insurgency can be defeated by the French causing people to stop the rebellion and accept Mauritania collaboration with the French to protect their economic interests and religious.
By the independence of Mauritania, appears much the party among the people of Mauritania. These parties include, Entente Mouritanienne which was established in 1948. The party opposition from Progressiste Mouritanienne Union (UPM). UPM own party split and there is a break-away and formed the Association de la Jeunesse Mouritanienne more loudly demanding independence. The formation of various parties in Mauritania showed that there were disputes within Mauritanian society between the traditional elite and modern politicians. But the main issue is how to preserve the identity of Mauritania to avoid absorption into the Arab nations of North Morocco or Senegal and Sudan in the south. Mauritania's independence in 1958 as the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.
Mauritania's independence by having a unitary national elite who rule society are very segmenter. After independence there unification of political parties between the Entente and UPM, thus forming a new party called Parti du Regroupement Mouritanienne. But in 1961 changed its name to Mouritanienne People Party. Thus the traditional segmenter communities in Mauritania community has been united in a single regime. The divisions of society traisional slowly be overcome through the establishment of a more unified community under a single regime that uses a metropolitan language and promises of Islamic identity.
b. Senegal
Senegal is basically a non-Muslim secular regime that ruled most of the Muslim population. Although this regime is influenced by the political culture of Europe and run by non-Muslim elites, most educated population in tariqat Sufi. Senegal is run through a collaboration between state elites and elite Sufi. Senegal represents an effort to recycle the classic pattern of supportive relations between Muslim countries and Muslim communal organizations.
French government helped support the spread of Islam. By taking a pragmatic attitude towards the Muslims and to regard them as highly civilized group, patterned live productive and capable in the field of administration. French Muslims use as a clerk, and made the village heads sebaga intermediaries and allow running the Islamic law. Under the French government scholars to wander from one place to another, to convey instruction, founded the school and formed the Muslim societies. Despite this worrying French Muslims as their political opponents. For that France tried to keep the Muslim forces are not organized and remains under French control.
France create a law school teacher nyang requires obtaining a permit and memilikii proficiency in speaking French. In 1908 France banned the circulation of newspapers in Arabic and try to develop ethnic and territorial organizations to break the Muslim community. In 1911 the French language shall be used in the Muslim judiciary and the trustee is prohibited to collect zakat. All of the above done to prevent the power of united Islamic community becomes larger.
But all policies are not applied consistently, because after World War I France to switch to policies that provide support for selectively terhdap Muslim figures. As a reward behind it, the Sufi support French efforts in creating a calm situation, army units gather, collect taxes and to increase agricultural production. Muslim elites adjust to the reality of the French government to stop political militancy which was replaced with the activities of worship, education, business economy and establish Muslim tariqat structure.
Tariqat largest and famous in Senegal is Tariqat Muridiyah founded in 1886 by Ahmad Bamba a guardian of the Wolof. He believes the war against France is a vain thing and recommend to switch from war to another job. Sheikh Ibra Fall a Mantang fighters who swear allegiance to Ahmad Bamba, trying to followers of its military into the tariqat Muridiyah. Compliance Ibra Fall marks the colonial domination and the Muslim leadership as the main requirement for the preservation of Wolof society. A mutually supportive relationship between spiritual power and temporal power tariqat endorse the establishment of a more persuasive for a number of Senegalese citizens.
But Ahmad Bamba in a long time suspected by the French as a disseminator of political and territorial aspirations. Because of this he was often exiled in 1895, 1902 and 1907. But in France tahun1912 party can accept that he was a spiritual leader and let him return to economic and Diourbel.
Indeed most of the supporters Tariqat Muridiyah are farmers, but also attract sympathy tariqat people who do not own the land, the young unemployed who worked an internship in agricultural societies. This resulted among supporters tariqat Muridiyah become very popular. In 1912 tariqat has 68,000 supporters and supporters in 1960 grew to 400,000 members. At that moment a third of the citizen-eighth Wolof and Senegalese citizens to be members of this tariqat.
In this tariqat practice of Islam is less important. Although they are fasting of Ramadan, but the obligatory prayers and fasting are other less dperhatikan. Tariqat Fall (muridiyah branch) is strikingly non-orthodox and non-compromise. The descendants of Ibrahim fall not perform Islamic prayers or rituals lainny, but they believe the attitude of resignation and work, and through gentle attitude and practice of magic they could gain the blessings of religion.
At the same time when society was organized by the Senegalese Sufi tariqat, among professional and non-Muslim urban elite took over the struggle for independence. Senegal has a history rooted political elite sejaj 19th century. Elite Senegal involved in the government of France, was working in Europe and eventually inherited the power of the state. With the dawn of Senegal's independence in 1960, Senegal was ruled by non-Muslim elite French education that dipimin by Leopold Senghor and Progressiste Senegalaise Union party. But Senegal is a country where people united by language Wolof is used by 80% of the population and because most of the citizens of Senegal is Muslim.
Senegal is an independent government headed by a president elected who raised a number of ministers. Inside there is an autonomous court. Senghor led from 1960 until 1980. In 1964, Senghor menkonsolidasi strengths and eliminate its opponents, in 1966 he decided to Senegal as a one-party socialist state. 1966 to 1976 UPS became the sole legal party in the country of Senegal, and a number of tariqat unite ourselves as a faction within the ruling party. From the years 1976-1980 Senghir allow the formation of multi-party politics and elections. After the dismissal of Senghor, Senegal was ruled for the first time a Muslim is Abdu Diouf.
Post-independence Senegal is a secular country ayang overwhelmingly Muslim. This population was organized into a number of Sufi tariqat which is a base for rural economic organizations for the citizens. Regime of the country is run in collaboration with religious leaders who became an intermediary with the public. A number of Sufi tariqat economic organizing prodiuktif nuts and gives political support to officials in the interior. Muslim Tariqat subsequently become an integral part of Senegal's political system.
At the same time, urbanization that occurred in Senegal, causing rapid population growth began to doubt authority figures magical hinterland. In some cities show interest in the Arabic language and forms of Islamic belief that the practice of emphasizing prayer, pilgrimage, ethical behavior, and intellectual interests adjacent to the suppression of religious emotion. The move was to form the Muslim Cultural Union (Muslim cultural associations) in 1953. Society is sponsoring the teaching of Arabic and Muslim schools, against colonialism, capitalism, and the influence of Sufi inland.
c. Nigeria
Islam in northern Nigeria has evolved as the religion of the elite since the 15th century. Sokoto Caliphate consolidate the identity of the Muslim political elite and make Islam the religion of the majority population. The emir is responsible for implementing justice, they raised Mallam as the prayer leader, led in the celebration and suggestions regarding religious law. Unofficially the emirs became an arbiter in local disputes.
In 1922 the British built as a high school college Katsina modern. English lessons be compulsory, and the Arabic language is inserted into part of the curriculum. Teaching Quran delivered by the Mallam to the salary of the British government. Kano Law School curriculum taught entirely Islamic. Although politically conservative, the British government evoke major changes in the economic and social. Development of road and rail network, development of agricultural exports such as nuts and cotton, farmers deliver northern Nigeria to the international market.
Economic development raises many important changes in social structure. Kano became the center of northern Nigeria market and as a thriving merchant center. Thus, the city population was divided into many ethnic groups, languages, and class. The structure is divided into an elite class of the ruling Fulani, Hausa traders wealthy, senior civil servants, middle-class merchants and the general public.
Over a century more, Lagos became the main center and the movement of the Muslim community. In 1861 the city became part of British kkoloni. The British help resolve disputes among Muslims and establish a reputation because of being impartial in resolving the internal matters of Muslims. British officials even protect a number of mosques. British Party raises big challenge against a Muslim community by introducing the system of Western education and Christian Education. Therefore, when in 1896 the UK to form a government that provides subsidies Muslim schools with system mix between Western and Muslim curriculum, then the Muslims respond to this as a cultural threat to the West and Christianity and establish their own educational community.
Ibadan town illustrates the different types of Muslim structures. Before the independence of Nigeria, Ibadan has two communities, ie communities Yoruba and Hausa communities. Yoruba Muslim Communist-organized under the authority of a faith and a few leaders to subordinates. Nonetheless, the Muslim community living-Yoruba are not exclusively but rather undergo a good social relations with non-Muslim Yoruba people, including carrying out joint ceremonies in churches and mosques. In addition to the Muslim community, there are also Yoruba Hausa Muslim community.
In the 12th century life in Ibadan Hausa rulers formed a settlement to their own, inhabited by migrants from northern Nigeria, the wives and their gunddik. The British and the majority of the Yoruba support embentukan settlement under a chieftain Hausa as a way to curb migrant communities bum yanh not only involve the vendor, including the merchant, even the thieves, beggars and other persons with social problems.
In the 1940s and 1950s society dominated by village heads and landlords are disturbed by the rise of nationalist movements. Disintregasi Inngris power to force Hausa parati obtain the support of political parties in Nigeria. This would threaten the solidarity kelangsungangan Hausa Hausa and trade monopolies. Thus between 1950 and 1952, after Ibrahim Niass inspired by the visit, the entire Hausa community to join fully with tariqat Tijaniah. The new religious consciousness is also changing the nature of authority in a Hausa community. Now Mallan have an important role as a teacher to straighten out the Muslim religious practices.
Establishment of a national state that leads the country north and south to the same political framework is very conspicuous in the changing political Islam. Nigerian state itself has a history full of riot. Because of the strengthening atnis differences, religious and regional differences, it is very difficult to attempt unification of north and south into nigeri independence. Merseka Nigeria in 1960, but in 1965 a number of government failures and abuses of politicians almost arouse the hostility of all walks of life. In 1966 a variety of turmoil across the country, and perlawananterhadap federal government and the western region, deliver general Ivonsi gain power of government. He attempted to unite the civil service in some wilyah as an attempt to give power to citizens Ibo country. subsequently a number of riots led Colonel Gowon came to power, which memaklumatkan a new constitution that divides Nigeria into twelve small states to meet the interests of minorities and reducing power blocks north and south.
Furthermore, between 1970 and 1975 a number of anxiety southern region of northern domination sparked a new rebellion triggered because of the cooperation between countries north and the existence of a census which showed that the northern region has the majority of the population. In 1976, Gowon's regime was overthrown and replaced by a new government military. After several years vacillated between federal and unitary state concept of Nigeria, the constitutional commission to try to create a national party system, jabatab preisden strong, and the diversity of local small countries who can not resist the central government. In the 1979 general election the party promised menyatukn most private companies and state support for the occupation of state for education. National Party of Nigeria, representing a number of Muslim elites in the north won yet, a new coup in 1984 to return to military rule, Nigeria has not found a stable government, both military and civilian. Behind this instibalitas military post in 1966 to progressively strengthen the country Nigeria. The exploitation of Nigeria led to revenue is very much on the federal state. Political context is changing very striking has changed the role of Islam in Nigeria as a whole.
Then in the 1970s a number of northern Muslim elites have allied with the non-Muslim south to maintain their political positions. Thus in the 1970's there has been increased attention to Nigeria's national identity, as a rival religious and territorial bonds
Chinese Historiography Progress
China is a nation that has an unbroken history of the oldest in the world. At first, Chinese history is a mix between the ways magico-religio with record keeping. This has caused a profound effect on China's historical tradition in the land.
1. Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti), for the first time to the appointment of court historians. Huang Ti is one of the legendary former Chinese culture.
2. Shang Dynasty (1751-1111 BC).
Modern Arkheologi membuktikkan that forecasters Shang dynasty palace, have kept "the archives" of their prophecy written on bones and tortoise shells.
3. Chuo early dynasty (1111-221 BC)
Fragmentary records, especially of certain chapters of the Shu Ching, or "History" reflects an ongoing interest in the history of the descendants of kings, ordinances and political legitimacy.
Warring States Period (Chang Kuo, 481-221 BC), for the first time China comes a thought-pemiiran systematic. The habit of always taking historical figures is an important factor in Chinese thinking. Confucius (551-479 BC) and his followers have emphasized the moral core of history.
Unitary state formed in the year 221 BC, the Chinese model of political development in later periods. Palace continued and promoted the tradition of past experience in hiring the historian who was given the task of maintaining the records of the emperor and all sorts of important events in the kingdom.
4. Early Han Dynasty (Ch'ien Han, 206 BC-9SM)
Ma grand-ch'ien Historians continue his father's job to make the history. He wrote Shih, Chi h first book of history that includes Chinese history from the time of vague until approximately the year 100 BC.
5. Later Han Dynasty (Hou Han, AD 25-220)
Pan-pu, the court historian, wrote the book of history which is the first book of the series' history of the dynasty "(master-tai sihih). This book is called History of Early Han Dynasty (Ch'ien Han Shu). Books Shih Chi and Ch'ien Han Shu became a model and emulated by other historians to write history books during later dynasties.
6. Age Divisions (220-586 BC), the dominance of the nations 'bar-bar'.
Buddhism slowly seeped into the thinking of Chinese, however, Buddhism is only a very small effect on the thinking of Chinese history. Early days of this age is the second big era of creative thinking the Chinese. Liu Hsieh 9465-522 BC), wrote a great book about literature. Part of this book also discusses various issues of historiography that is the importance of general principles, the limits to choose specific things, the size to trust the material, as well as objectivity and bias issues.
7. Tang Dynasty (618-906) golden age of art and literature.
For the first time in history become the raw material in the curriculum of the state exam. A state officials Tu Yu (735-812) tried to free itself from the traditions of dynastic records and write T'ung Tien. Shaped encyclopedia and regarded as the first Chinese institutional history. In the early days of the Tang held a major expansion of bureaucracy in charge of recording the events, process dokumuan, memeliharaarsip and write history.
In compiling the history of the dynasty, imperial commissions held a press authors have replaced the expansion of bureaucracy in charge of recording the events, process dokumuan, memeliharaarsip and write history.
In compiling the history of the dynasty, imperial commissions have replaced the individual authors. These symptoms began the division of official and unofficial historiography that continue to expire until the end of the imperial system.
8. Sung period (960-1279)
Writing the history of neo-Confucianism shows a new rigor in the writing of history, the tendency to use unofficial sources and efforts to explain rationally combined with a strong belief in the power of moral.
9. Manchu Dynasty (Ching, 1644-1911).
Feelings are not satisfied with the orthodoxy of neo-Confucianism has led to the emergence of a movement which is very important criticism. -Rational empiricism led to the emergence of new principles and methods in the geographical-historical, epigraphy, archeology and other fields. When the imperial system collapsed. The method and spirit of the new historians doubt reflected widely in the modernization of Chinese historiography.
A. Views on the History of Chinese People
The term shih (historical) in terms of China has many meanings. Chinese conception of history is determined by certain elements in the Chinese view of the World.
1. Ethnocentrism. History terutamaberhubungan with the "middle kingdom" is bagsa bars that must be excluded from the merngakibatkan Chinese culture Chinese culture isolation has only a little knowledge about the other great cultures.
2. Holism. The view that human and natural events related to each other thoroughly.
3. The view that history is a responsibility that comes from the golden age.
4. The concept of cycles in the history of politics.
5. The view that there is a moral dynamics in various human activities.
B. Field and Objective Historiography
The purpose of the writing of history tied to the desire of state officials in general classes. Namely:
Maintain stability and tranquility in a way dujalankannya administration and enforcement of social control, maintaining Confusianis conservatism, maintaining the basic ethics in society Confusionis in literature and art, and protection class position literay and Gentry of the autocratic emperor threat or power-hungry group.
The scope of Chinese historiography:
• Convergence is very great attention to political history and lessons about stability and change that can be drawn from it.
• The history of institutions viewed from the capital and the official currency of the glass. Economic part, centered on the regular functioning of government.
• Little attention to groups opposed to the literati class.
• A little about religions that are considered apostates.
C. Method of History.
The method used Historian China can be divided into two groups.
1. Method of recording contemporary events.
=> The court historian in charge of records every day of every court event.
=> Unofficial historian, noted peritiwa-events experienced.
2. Compilation method based on time series of the notes above.
=> From time to time, the court historian edit and take notes daily digest seta menyusunya based urytan time.
=> The same is done by the unofficial historian.
D. Modernization Historiography.
Chinese traditional historiography stalled because of several things that affect perkembangn historiography, namely:
> The occurrence of the phases of the collapse of the imperial system in China.
> The entry of Western influence.
At 1905 abolished the state examination system, coupled with rapid reforms in education. Preformance famous universities in 1930-1931, provides some positions for historians. Unruk leading advanced research institute is an institution of history and philology, as a branch of the Academia SIB = tract was formed by the government in 1928.
Year 1930-1945 to be the grim consequences of the Japanese attack. 1945-1949, the nationalist government to be intolerant of different opinions, so the situation becomes increasingly tense and oppression rampant. In 1949 the historian must choose to live in china or retreated to Taiwan. Most fdari they choose to live. After 1949, there were two centers of historical research that is the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.
Since 1949 historians have always forced the PRC to improve mastery of Marxism and the Marxist theories to create new sejaran immediately, which fits with the new government. In general, dogmatic reasons has led to the study of history in China became sterile.
In Taiwan, Acamedica Sinica revived. National Taiwan University has a faculty of history. Several previous publications of the Academica Sinica glow reprinted, but a historical fact that people in Taiwan is very small and limited.
Source:
Wiodayanta, Danar. 2002. Diktat Kuliah: Perkembangan Historiografi Tinjauan di Berbagai Wilayah Dunia. Yogyakarta: UNY.
1. Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti), for the first time to the appointment of court historians. Huang Ti is one of the legendary former Chinese culture.
2. Shang Dynasty (1751-1111 BC).
Modern Arkheologi membuktikkan that forecasters Shang dynasty palace, have kept "the archives" of their prophecy written on bones and tortoise shells.
3. Chuo early dynasty (1111-221 BC)
Fragmentary records, especially of certain chapters of the Shu Ching, or "History" reflects an ongoing interest in the history of the descendants of kings, ordinances and political legitimacy.
Warring States Period (Chang Kuo, 481-221 BC), for the first time China comes a thought-pemiiran systematic. The habit of always taking historical figures is an important factor in Chinese thinking. Confucius (551-479 BC) and his followers have emphasized the moral core of history.
Unitary state formed in the year 221 BC, the Chinese model of political development in later periods. Palace continued and promoted the tradition of past experience in hiring the historian who was given the task of maintaining the records of the emperor and all sorts of important events in the kingdom.
4. Early Han Dynasty (Ch'ien Han, 206 BC-9SM)
Ma grand-ch'ien Historians continue his father's job to make the history. He wrote Shih, Chi h first book of history that includes Chinese history from the time of vague until approximately the year 100 BC.
5. Later Han Dynasty (Hou Han, AD 25-220)
Pan-pu, the court historian, wrote the book of history which is the first book of the series' history of the dynasty "(master-tai sihih). This book is called History of Early Han Dynasty (Ch'ien Han Shu). Books Shih Chi and Ch'ien Han Shu became a model and emulated by other historians to write history books during later dynasties.
6. Age Divisions (220-586 BC), the dominance of the nations 'bar-bar'.
Buddhism slowly seeped into the thinking of Chinese, however, Buddhism is only a very small effect on the thinking of Chinese history. Early days of this age is the second big era of creative thinking the Chinese. Liu Hsieh 9465-522 BC), wrote a great book about literature. Part of this book also discusses various issues of historiography that is the importance of general principles, the limits to choose specific things, the size to trust the material, as well as objectivity and bias issues.
7. Tang Dynasty (618-906) golden age of art and literature.
For the first time in history become the raw material in the curriculum of the state exam. A state officials Tu Yu (735-812) tried to free itself from the traditions of dynastic records and write T'ung Tien. Shaped encyclopedia and regarded as the first Chinese institutional history. In the early days of the Tang held a major expansion of bureaucracy in charge of recording the events, process dokumuan, memeliharaarsip and write history.
In compiling the history of the dynasty, imperial commissions held a press authors have replaced the expansion of bureaucracy in charge of recording the events, process dokumuan, memeliharaarsip and write history.
In compiling the history of the dynasty, imperial commissions have replaced the individual authors. These symptoms began the division of official and unofficial historiography that continue to expire until the end of the imperial system.
8. Sung period (960-1279)
Writing the history of neo-Confucianism shows a new rigor in the writing of history, the tendency to use unofficial sources and efforts to explain rationally combined with a strong belief in the power of moral.
9. Manchu Dynasty (Ching, 1644-1911).
Feelings are not satisfied with the orthodoxy of neo-Confucianism has led to the emergence of a movement which is very important criticism. -Rational empiricism led to the emergence of new principles and methods in the geographical-historical, epigraphy, archeology and other fields. When the imperial system collapsed. The method and spirit of the new historians doubt reflected widely in the modernization of Chinese historiography.
A. Views on the History of Chinese People
The term shih (historical) in terms of China has many meanings. Chinese conception of history is determined by certain elements in the Chinese view of the World.
1. Ethnocentrism. History terutamaberhubungan with the "middle kingdom" is bagsa bars that must be excluded from the merngakibatkan Chinese culture Chinese culture isolation has only a little knowledge about the other great cultures.
2. Holism. The view that human and natural events related to each other thoroughly.
3. The view that history is a responsibility that comes from the golden age.
4. The concept of cycles in the history of politics.
5. The view that there is a moral dynamics in various human activities.
B. Field and Objective Historiography
The purpose of the writing of history tied to the desire of state officials in general classes. Namely:
Maintain stability and tranquility in a way dujalankannya administration and enforcement of social control, maintaining Confusianis conservatism, maintaining the basic ethics in society Confusionis in literature and art, and protection class position literay and Gentry of the autocratic emperor threat or power-hungry group.
The scope of Chinese historiography:
• Convergence is very great attention to political history and lessons about stability and change that can be drawn from it.
• The history of institutions viewed from the capital and the official currency of the glass. Economic part, centered on the regular functioning of government.
• Little attention to groups opposed to the literati class.
• A little about religions that are considered apostates.
C. Method of History.
The method used Historian China can be divided into two groups.
1. Method of recording contemporary events.
=> The court historian in charge of records every day of every court event.
=> Unofficial historian, noted peritiwa-events experienced.
2. Compilation method based on time series of the notes above.
=> From time to time, the court historian edit and take notes daily digest seta menyusunya based urytan time.
=> The same is done by the unofficial historian.
D. Modernization Historiography.
Chinese traditional historiography stalled because of several things that affect perkembangn historiography, namely:
> The occurrence of the phases of the collapse of the imperial system in China.
> The entry of Western influence.
At 1905 abolished the state examination system, coupled with rapid reforms in education. Preformance famous universities in 1930-1931, provides some positions for historians. Unruk leading advanced research institute is an institution of history and philology, as a branch of the Academia SIB = tract was formed by the government in 1928.
Year 1930-1945 to be the grim consequences of the Japanese attack. 1945-1949, the nationalist government to be intolerant of different opinions, so the situation becomes increasingly tense and oppression rampant. In 1949 the historian must choose to live in china or retreated to Taiwan. Most fdari they choose to live. After 1949, there were two centers of historical research that is the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.
Since 1949 historians have always forced the PRC to improve mastery of Marxism and the Marxist theories to create new sejaran immediately, which fits with the new government. In general, dogmatic reasons has led to the study of history in China became sterile.
In Taiwan, Acamedica Sinica revived. National Taiwan University has a faculty of history. Several previous publications of the Academica Sinica glow reprinted, but a historical fact that people in Taiwan is very small and limited.
Source:
Wiodayanta, Danar. 2002. Diktat Kuliah: Perkembangan Historiografi Tinjauan di Berbagai Wilayah Dunia. Yogyakarta: UNY.
Selasa, 04 Januari 2011
Islamic historiography progress
Islamic historiography is the writing of history by Muslims both groups and individuals from various schools and within a certain period. The aim is to show the development of the concept of history both in thought and in our thoughts and in our scientific approach does is accompanied by a description of the growth, development and decline of other forms of expression used in the presentation of historical materials. Most of the works of many written in Arabic, but many speakers of other languages such as Persian and Turkish.
A. Historical Origins
Islamic historiography is closely related to the development of Islamic religious knowledge, and position in the history of Islamic education has a decisive influence on the intellectual level of the writing of history. Islamic historiography is more easily learned and understood within the general framework of Islamic civilization. The development of Islamic civilization is a great reflection on the history. Cultures from several studies show that:
a. That Islam as a religion the world has shown a remarkable development in world history.
b. Furthermore, Islam as a religion has also emit a civilization.
c. In the development of Islamic civilization, the traditions of foreign cultures are absorbed, modified, then that is not appropriate deletions.
d. Islamic Civilization presents a complete system of thought and behavior that develops as a major impetus which include human relationships with God, nature and the man himself.
Things that encourage the rapid development of Islamic historiography are:
1. The concept of Islam as a religion that contains history. Prophet has provided a framework for a vast historical container to be filled out and interpreted by historians.
2. The existence of historical consciousness that is fostered by the Prophet Muhammad. Great sense of history becomes a spur to research and writing of history.
Tahab development of mechanisms that created Islam:
a. At first the information submitted in Oral.
b. Later this oral delivery methods (oral transmission) equipped with an unpublished written records, that kind of reporting records.
Most of the works of many former Muslims who lost, because no institution publishing and writing materials tahna long time, probably also due to change of power Ummayah (660-750), many are destroyed. Few examples of Islamic historians of this period:
1. Urwah ibn. Az-Zubyar (650-711), one Muslim scholar who has written a book of War by the Prophet.
2. Al-Zuhri (670-740), has written a paper on "Genealogy of the nation". Besides, he also writes the possibility for personal gain during the reign of the Caliph.
3. Ibn Musa. Uqnah (758/759), in the form of short fragments, which do not contain all of history.
4. Ibn Ishaq (704-767), wrote major historical works of the oldest and is still maintained until now, although an improvement kemudiian the Biography of the Prophet or sirah.
B. Form and Content of Work History
Pre-Islamic Arab tradition has emphasized the fact that konkrid element in history, regardless of their environment and where possible not changed by the process of human thinking. The basic form of Islamic work is: a simple statement, the events off, without weight, even though anaka range, penonlolan brain, disususn all at once without an explanation of the cause musabahnya. Historical truth, as where the truth of religion has been considered to be guaranteed by impartiality of a number of people who deliver a berantaisehingga information they called "a series of news giver" or isnads.
1. Khabar
Namely, the oldest form of historiography is directly related to the war story with a good and perfect description written in bebebrapa page only. Typical Khabar namely:
a. There is no causal relationship between two or more events.
b. Khabar already existed before Islam became a war story with a form of short stories presented in the form of a dialogue that alleviate the historian.
c. Khabar form is more diverse picture.
Examples of several historical works that use shape khabar:
a. Ali Ibn Muhammad al-Madani (d. 831). monographs have been found is al-Murdifat min Quraysy (Quraish a stout woman's husband)
b. Abu Mihnaf Lut ibn Yahya (d. 774)
c. Al-Haytham ibn Adi (d. 821) and Ibn Habib. his work is a collection of monographs in the form khabar or nasab.
2. Chronicle
Compilation of history based on the sequence ruler and the years events. This chronicle can be added with new things in supplement form, commonly called dyal or tail.
Examples of work history (chronic), the oldest:
a. Work Khalifah ibn. Khayyat, in Arabic, was written until 847 years approximately eight years before the author died. He began his exposition of the meaning of chronicle and a brief description about the history of Muhammad at the beginning of his life.
b. Ya'kub ibn. Sufyan (d. 891). Book of history written in the second half of the 9th century. Written by order of the year plus a few quotations.
c. Ibn Abi Haithamah (d. 893). Also show chapter by chapter-year sequence, though limited, when compared with other works in its entirety.
d. Jarier Ibn al-Tabari (923), comprising standard works of multiple volumes on historiography is to chronicle chronicles al-Uman wa al-Muluk. Descriptions that include the history of the prophet in Mecca, the Prophet's wives, apostate, a biography of Abu Bakr, and so on. Another inscription is Adab al rituals, Adab al-Nufus, Iktilaf cleric al-Amshar, Tahdzib Atsar, Jami al-Bayan al ta'wil Ayl al-Quran, al-Jami 'fi al Qiraat, Zail al Zall al Muzayyal etc. His writings influenced the direction of further writing.
3. Biography
Biographies are arranged in groups, commonly called "tabaqah". This work covers the history of the lives of those big, prominent figures and important people who have died within approximately the same.
In Islamic society there are several factors why the biography becomes dominant:
a. Biography of the Prophet Muhammad is the main source for the development of Islamic society.
b. Narrates the life of the Prophet Muhammad in detail depending on the individual transmitters, it can be rejected or accepted depending on the data transmitters of life itself.
c. The struggle to uphold Islam in most of the advantage shown by individuals leader, who has been very instrumental in the struggle.
Since the 10th century, preparing biographies in alphabetical order is the preferred way.
Some works of biography:
a. al-Dhahabi in his book chronicle al-Islam wa al a'lam thabaqat masyahir able to show date of birth of each year for inclusion of names on in the book.
b. Khatib al-Baghdadi in the book chronicle of Baghdad, date of birth and death respectively mentioned in the beginning of the writing of biography.
c. Yaqut (1229), entitled al-Irshad ila arib ma'rifat al-adib.
d. Abi Usaybiah (1270), his writings titled Ujun al-Anba fi al-atibba tabagat
e. Ibn Khallikan (1282), biographies of leading figures of al-titled wafayat A'yan.
4. General History
At the end of the 9th century, political history was associated with a history of thought, and began to discuss various important symptom of civilizations ever known, including:
a. Work history of al-Yaqubi, titled chronicle al-Yaqubi spread by Goutsma in Leiden in 1883 consists of two volumes.
b. Al-Mas'udi write about Muruj az-Zahab that still affect the subsequent works.
c. The work of Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari, al-Umam chronicle entitled wa al-Muluk. Contains descriptions of the history of religion, law and other political events.
d. Miskawiyah with his work Tajarib al-Umam. Contains a description of the ancient Persian history, and history of the Roman empire and Turkey.
e. Rashid ad-Din Fadlalh (1318) from Central Asia, his work on Public History (Jami'at-annals), written in Persian and is the first original work of universal history of Islam.
C. The Historian
Most of the work of historiography, Islam is a blessing service scholars educated in the science of religion. Their writing activities also involves the writing of history.
1. Historian Palace.
Professional historians in the palace is an important part in several palaces, such as younger dynasty palace of the Persian and Ottoman that provide highly encouraged to study history. Their number is not much, and they were instrumental in producing works best in the history of Islam.
2. Amateur Historian
The rulers who wrote works of history and memoirs can be regarded as an amateur historian. most of these works concerning the pedigree (geneologi).
3. Professional historians.
Are people who devoted themselves in compiling the works of history and consider themselves or are considered by Islamic tradition as a historian. Professional historians dalm modern sense hardly exist in medieval environment. For example: Al-Mas'udi and Al-Magrizi (1442) during the reign of the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt.
D. Objectives and Methodology Historiography
Muslim historians have a habit to introduce their works with a declaration stating the purpose of writing history. History also has benefits include: (1) mengajrkan good examples, (2) taught how to cope with the problems faced in this world, (3) teach our politicians to control how good governance, (4) something interesting but it requires thinking.
The main task of the historian is to develop what is really happening and the main problem they face is to investigate the validity of information obtained, either orally or through written sources. Written history has given an evidentiary authority (evidental authority). Archival research and study of inscriptions, currencies, and historical evidence about the same time it is used only sporadically. There are some historians who discuss the methodology of Islamic historiography, among them:
a. The work of Muhammad bn. Ibrahim al-Iji namely al-Faqier Tuhfatu Shahibi ila al-Sarier written in 1381-1382.
b. Muhyiddin Ibn Muhammad Sulaiman al0Kafiyani (1386-1474). Al-Kafiyani, also wrote a comprehensive work on Islamic historiography, methods, problems, and history with kitapnya Mukhtasar fi ilm al-chronicle published in cairo in 1463.
c. Shamsuddin al-Sakhawi (1427-1497) with his work al-I'lan bi al-Taubiekhi liman dzamma Ahla al-Chronicles published in 1492 in Mecca.
Besides the above there are also works of Ibn Farighun with Jawawi'al-'Ulum, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi by Haqaiq al-Anwar, Ibn al-'Adiem with Bughyat al-Thalab, Al-Khabar Magriezi with 'an al-Basyar, Al-Dhahabi in al-Qurra Thabaqat '.
E. Islamic Philosophy and Sociology
Views of Muslim historians, that history is God's chosen media to improve human and as persipan to face the day of reckoning from the end of the world that can not be circumvented.
Mishkawayh in his work entitled The experience of Nations, he denies that the events caused by the cam [purtangan of human strength beyond that happened in history. While Ibn Khaldun of North Africa (1406), writing in the year 1377, he developed a system that makes sense for the historical process from the point of mere humans. In his preface (Preamble) of the book on the history of Kitab al-Ibar unjversal, outlines that humans rely on the forces of matter and psychology, which diuraikannya in detail.
F. Contemporary Islamic historiography
In the 19th century, there are several translations of Western works have ever known. At that time there were concerns of non-Islamic history is still limited, and saatb now has many Islamic historians who obtained a Western education in scientific practice and methodology. They began to publish important historical works.
History of Islam in general historiography written by Franz Rosenthal in one karyuanya A History of Muslim Historiography first published in 1952. This work has provided a great influence dalammenelusuri history of Islamic historiography.
A masterpiece of Islamic historiography written by a young intellectual named Nizar Ahmed Faruqi India titled Early Muslim Historiography, published in 1979 in New Delhi. This dissertation as a documentary that presents the perspective of history writing in early Islam (612-750). Some other works that can be used as study material is the writings of Islamic historiography JH Kramers, "Historiography Among the Osmani Turks".
A. Historical Origins
Islamic historiography is closely related to the development of Islamic religious knowledge, and position in the history of Islamic education has a decisive influence on the intellectual level of the writing of history. Islamic historiography is more easily learned and understood within the general framework of Islamic civilization. The development of Islamic civilization is a great reflection on the history. Cultures from several studies show that:
a. That Islam as a religion the world has shown a remarkable development in world history.
b. Furthermore, Islam as a religion has also emit a civilization.
c. In the development of Islamic civilization, the traditions of foreign cultures are absorbed, modified, then that is not appropriate deletions.
d. Islamic Civilization presents a complete system of thought and behavior that develops as a major impetus which include human relationships with God, nature and the man himself.
Things that encourage the rapid development of Islamic historiography are:
1. The concept of Islam as a religion that contains history. Prophet has provided a framework for a vast historical container to be filled out and interpreted by historians.
2. The existence of historical consciousness that is fostered by the Prophet Muhammad. Great sense of history becomes a spur to research and writing of history.
Tahab development of mechanisms that created Islam:
a. At first the information submitted in Oral.
b. Later this oral delivery methods (oral transmission) equipped with an unpublished written records, that kind of reporting records.
Most of the works of many former Muslims who lost, because no institution publishing and writing materials tahna long time, probably also due to change of power Ummayah (660-750), many are destroyed. Few examples of Islamic historians of this period:
1. Urwah ibn. Az-Zubyar (650-711), one Muslim scholar who has written a book of War by the Prophet.
2. Al-Zuhri (670-740), has written a paper on "Genealogy of the nation". Besides, he also writes the possibility for personal gain during the reign of the Caliph.
3. Ibn Musa. Uqnah (758/759), in the form of short fragments, which do not contain all of history.
4. Ibn Ishaq (704-767), wrote major historical works of the oldest and is still maintained until now, although an improvement kemudiian the Biography of the Prophet or sirah.
B. Form and Content of Work History
Pre-Islamic Arab tradition has emphasized the fact that konkrid element in history, regardless of their environment and where possible not changed by the process of human thinking. The basic form of Islamic work is: a simple statement, the events off, without weight, even though anaka range, penonlolan brain, disususn all at once without an explanation of the cause musabahnya. Historical truth, as where the truth of religion has been considered to be guaranteed by impartiality of a number of people who deliver a berantaisehingga information they called "a series of news giver" or isnads.
1. Khabar
Namely, the oldest form of historiography is directly related to the war story with a good and perfect description written in bebebrapa page only. Typical Khabar namely:
a. There is no causal relationship between two or more events.
b. Khabar already existed before Islam became a war story with a form of short stories presented in the form of a dialogue that alleviate the historian.
c. Khabar form is more diverse picture.
Examples of several historical works that use shape khabar:
a. Ali Ibn Muhammad al-Madani (d. 831). monographs have been found is al-Murdifat min Quraysy (Quraish a stout woman's husband)
b. Abu Mihnaf Lut ibn Yahya (d. 774)
c. Al-Haytham ibn Adi (d. 821) and Ibn Habib. his work is a collection of monographs in the form khabar or nasab.
2. Chronicle
Compilation of history based on the sequence ruler and the years events. This chronicle can be added with new things in supplement form, commonly called dyal or tail.
Examples of work history (chronic), the oldest:
a. Work Khalifah ibn. Khayyat, in Arabic, was written until 847 years approximately eight years before the author died. He began his exposition of the meaning of chronicle and a brief description about the history of Muhammad at the beginning of his life.
b. Ya'kub ibn. Sufyan (d. 891). Book of history written in the second half of the 9th century. Written by order of the year plus a few quotations.
c. Ibn Abi Haithamah (d. 893). Also show chapter by chapter-year sequence, though limited, when compared with other works in its entirety.
d. Jarier Ibn al-Tabari (923), comprising standard works of multiple volumes on historiography is to chronicle chronicles al-Uman wa al-Muluk. Descriptions that include the history of the prophet in Mecca, the Prophet's wives, apostate, a biography of Abu Bakr, and so on. Another inscription is Adab al rituals, Adab al-Nufus, Iktilaf cleric al-Amshar, Tahdzib Atsar, Jami al-Bayan al ta'wil Ayl al-Quran, al-Jami 'fi al Qiraat, Zail al Zall al Muzayyal etc. His writings influenced the direction of further writing.
3. Biography
Biographies are arranged in groups, commonly called "tabaqah". This work covers the history of the lives of those big, prominent figures and important people who have died within approximately the same.
In Islamic society there are several factors why the biography becomes dominant:
a. Biography of the Prophet Muhammad is the main source for the development of Islamic society.
b. Narrates the life of the Prophet Muhammad in detail depending on the individual transmitters, it can be rejected or accepted depending on the data transmitters of life itself.
c. The struggle to uphold Islam in most of the advantage shown by individuals leader, who has been very instrumental in the struggle.
Since the 10th century, preparing biographies in alphabetical order is the preferred way.
Some works of biography:
a. al-Dhahabi in his book chronicle al-Islam wa al a'lam thabaqat masyahir able to show date of birth of each year for inclusion of names on in the book.
b. Khatib al-Baghdadi in the book chronicle of Baghdad, date of birth and death respectively mentioned in the beginning of the writing of biography.
c. Yaqut (1229), entitled al-Irshad ila arib ma'rifat al-adib.
d. Abi Usaybiah (1270), his writings titled Ujun al-Anba fi al-atibba tabagat
e. Ibn Khallikan (1282), biographies of leading figures of al-titled wafayat A'yan.
4. General History
At the end of the 9th century, political history was associated with a history of thought, and began to discuss various important symptom of civilizations ever known, including:
a. Work history of al-Yaqubi, titled chronicle al-Yaqubi spread by Goutsma in Leiden in 1883 consists of two volumes.
b. Al-Mas'udi write about Muruj az-Zahab that still affect the subsequent works.
c. The work of Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari, al-Umam chronicle entitled wa al-Muluk. Contains descriptions of the history of religion, law and other political events.
d. Miskawiyah with his work Tajarib al-Umam. Contains a description of the ancient Persian history, and history of the Roman empire and Turkey.
e. Rashid ad-Din Fadlalh (1318) from Central Asia, his work on Public History (Jami'at-annals), written in Persian and is the first original work of universal history of Islam.
C. The Historian
Most of the work of historiography, Islam is a blessing service scholars educated in the science of religion. Their writing activities also involves the writing of history.
1. Historian Palace.
Professional historians in the palace is an important part in several palaces, such as younger dynasty palace of the Persian and Ottoman that provide highly encouraged to study history. Their number is not much, and they were instrumental in producing works best in the history of Islam.
2. Amateur Historian
The rulers who wrote works of history and memoirs can be regarded as an amateur historian. most of these works concerning the pedigree (geneologi).
3. Professional historians.
Are people who devoted themselves in compiling the works of history and consider themselves or are considered by Islamic tradition as a historian. Professional historians dalm modern sense hardly exist in medieval environment. For example: Al-Mas'udi and Al-Magrizi (1442) during the reign of the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt.
D. Objectives and Methodology Historiography
Muslim historians have a habit to introduce their works with a declaration stating the purpose of writing history. History also has benefits include: (1) mengajrkan good examples, (2) taught how to cope with the problems faced in this world, (3) teach our politicians to control how good governance, (4) something interesting but it requires thinking.
The main task of the historian is to develop what is really happening and the main problem they face is to investigate the validity of information obtained, either orally or through written sources. Written history has given an evidentiary authority (evidental authority). Archival research and study of inscriptions, currencies, and historical evidence about the same time it is used only sporadically. There are some historians who discuss the methodology of Islamic historiography, among them:
a. The work of Muhammad bn. Ibrahim al-Iji namely al-Faqier Tuhfatu Shahibi ila al-Sarier written in 1381-1382.
b. Muhyiddin Ibn Muhammad Sulaiman al0Kafiyani (1386-1474). Al-Kafiyani, also wrote a comprehensive work on Islamic historiography, methods, problems, and history with kitapnya Mukhtasar fi ilm al-chronicle published in cairo in 1463.
c. Shamsuddin al-Sakhawi (1427-1497) with his work al-I'lan bi al-Taubiekhi liman dzamma Ahla al-Chronicles published in 1492 in Mecca.
Besides the above there are also works of Ibn Farighun with Jawawi'al-'Ulum, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi by Haqaiq al-Anwar, Ibn al-'Adiem with Bughyat al-Thalab, Al-Khabar Magriezi with 'an al-Basyar, Al-Dhahabi in al-Qurra Thabaqat '.
E. Islamic Philosophy and Sociology
Views of Muslim historians, that history is God's chosen media to improve human and as persipan to face the day of reckoning from the end of the world that can not be circumvented.
Mishkawayh in his work entitled The experience of Nations, he denies that the events caused by the cam [purtangan of human strength beyond that happened in history. While Ibn Khaldun of North Africa (1406), writing in the year 1377, he developed a system that makes sense for the historical process from the point of mere humans. In his preface (Preamble) of the book on the history of Kitab al-Ibar unjversal, outlines that humans rely on the forces of matter and psychology, which diuraikannya in detail.
F. Contemporary Islamic historiography
In the 19th century, there are several translations of Western works have ever known. At that time there were concerns of non-Islamic history is still limited, and saatb now has many Islamic historians who obtained a Western education in scientific practice and methodology. They began to publish important historical works.
History of Islam in general historiography written by Franz Rosenthal in one karyuanya A History of Muslim Historiography first published in 1952. This work has provided a great influence dalammenelusuri history of Islamic historiography.
A masterpiece of Islamic historiography written by a young intellectual named Nizar Ahmed Faruqi India titled Early Muslim Historiography, published in 1979 in New Delhi. This dissertation as a documentary that presents the perspective of history writing in early Islam (612-750). Some other works that can be used as study material is the writings of Islamic historiography JH Kramers, "Historiography Among the Osmani Turks".
Historiography South Asia
Histiografi developments in south Asia can be divided into two periods namely traditional and modern. In the traditional historiography kesusateraan sources are still very strong. While in modern historiography is more directed to India this is because Indialah the most impressive in quantity or quality.
A. Traditional historiography
Traditional historiography of South Asia can be divided into two namely:
1. Before the entrance of Islam into India
Religion veda is the oldest religious scriptures berkitab, introduced in animist communities are still illiterate in South Asia. This religion-produced chronicle chronicle in the form of Purana. Purana tradition was later expanded with chronicle chronicle-dynasty, but still has the characteristics:
a. General unknown.
b. Overstated.
c. Less data is authentic.
d. Neglect of topography and chronology.
Epic Mahabharata and Ramayana are many influential and widely used as a source in a tradition of historiography. Both these epic along with Pancatrata and Jataka stories of Buddhism became a source of humorous stories and traditions of Buddhist geneologis story to writing and chronic-chronic in Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka in its development appear wamsa tradition (especially chronic Dipavamsa known,
Mahamvasa, and Culavamsa) resulted in several initiatives chronicles the palace, there arose a tradition, the writing of history. These works formed chronicle and humorous story, written in the form of poem, and its use is limited among the palace.
2. After the entry of Islam into India.
A tradition of historiography that has developed both introduced, and for six more centuries to master a branch of Islamic historiography of South Asia. The main characteristics of Islamic writing:
a. Tied to the interests of power sortodoks.
b. Tend to serve the Lord and the Islamic community.
c. Aimed at the moral and religious education through the stories of the prophets, caliphs, caliphs, sultans and great men among the religious and historical heritage of the government of India, and can be regarded as an integral part of South Asian historiography.
B. Modern historiography
a. Western science in India began to develop when the Society was formed in Calcutta in 1784, founded by William James. Research activities of this institution on the eastern world. Born too similar institutions in Bombay, Madras, Mysore and Sri Lanka, as well as growth lemabaga ilmiahdi agencies of France and Germany, there are study-kajiandi seta Europe in the 19th century, meriupakan foundation for the development of modern historiography in south asia.
The most important contribution in the first place is in the field:
a. Filiologi and editing Sanskrit texts from Vedic and Buddhist religions.
b. Archaeological research on India, as the founder dasae to deal with material from ancient India who previously could not be learned.
c. Pre-Islamic areas. This period is very menarikkarena no chronology, no geneologi who can be trusted, and no provisions that could explain exactly amnusia.
20th-century historiography in South Asia is directly and strongly influenced by Western methodology. There are two ways:
a. A deeper appreciation of western scientific methods, especially after the most brilliant research arkheologis of Mohenjodaro and Harrapa.
b. Nasionalitis and anti-imperialistic approach, which in its most extreme result in the writing of history-writing is bad and revisionitas on the one hand, and on the other hand provide incentives for Marxist historiography and others in bentukhistoriografi radical.
India after independence, the writing of history continues to grow primarily through institutions such as:
- Archeological Survey (Department Arkheologi)
- History Records Commission (Commission for Historical Archive)
- Indian History Congress (Congress of History of India)
Ever held a conference on the History of Asia in 1961 and the International meeting of the International Conggres of Orientallis (the International Congress of experts on the East) held in New Delhi in 1965.
Historiography developments in Pakistan since 1947 is less prominent. Separation with India led to a new country is lack of research facilities. Historians Pakistan began to revive the traditions of Islamic historiography. The works produced by A. The most important Yusuf Ali, Shafa 'at Ahmad Khan and I.H. Qureshi, who was famous before the separation with India.
In Sri Lanka the development of historiography rather late. But the results can be seen in publications of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka Branch of the Royal Society Asia), and Ceylon Journal of Historical and Social Studies (Journal of Sri Lanka for history and social studies) who had recently formed.
A. Traditional historiography
Traditional historiography of South Asia can be divided into two namely:
1. Before the entrance of Islam into India
Religion veda is the oldest religious scriptures berkitab, introduced in animist communities are still illiterate in South Asia. This religion-produced chronicle chronicle in the form of Purana. Purana tradition was later expanded with chronicle chronicle-dynasty, but still has the characteristics:
a. General unknown.
b. Overstated.
c. Less data is authentic.
d. Neglect of topography and chronology.
Epic Mahabharata and Ramayana are many influential and widely used as a source in a tradition of historiography. Both these epic along with Pancatrata and Jataka stories of Buddhism became a source of humorous stories and traditions of Buddhist geneologis story to writing and chronic-chronic in Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka in its development appear wamsa tradition (especially chronic Dipavamsa known,
Mahamvasa, and Culavamsa) resulted in several initiatives chronicles the palace, there arose a tradition, the writing of history. These works formed chronicle and humorous story, written in the form of poem, and its use is limited among the palace.
2. After the entry of Islam into India.
A tradition of historiography that has developed both introduced, and for six more centuries to master a branch of Islamic historiography of South Asia. The main characteristics of Islamic writing:
a. Tied to the interests of power sortodoks.
b. Tend to serve the Lord and the Islamic community.
c. Aimed at the moral and religious education through the stories of the prophets, caliphs, caliphs, sultans and great men among the religious and historical heritage of the government of India, and can be regarded as an integral part of South Asian historiography.
B. Modern historiography
a. Western science in India began to develop when the Society was formed in Calcutta in 1784, founded by William James. Research activities of this institution on the eastern world. Born too similar institutions in Bombay, Madras, Mysore and Sri Lanka, as well as growth lemabaga ilmiahdi agencies of France and Germany, there are study-kajiandi seta Europe in the 19th century, meriupakan foundation for the development of modern historiography in south asia.
The most important contribution in the first place is in the field:
a. Filiologi and editing Sanskrit texts from Vedic and Buddhist religions.
b. Archaeological research on India, as the founder dasae to deal with material from ancient India who previously could not be learned.
c. Pre-Islamic areas. This period is very menarikkarena no chronology, no geneologi who can be trusted, and no provisions that could explain exactly amnusia.
20th-century historiography in South Asia is directly and strongly influenced by Western methodology. There are two ways:
a. A deeper appreciation of western scientific methods, especially after the most brilliant research arkheologis of Mohenjodaro and Harrapa.
b. Nasionalitis and anti-imperialistic approach, which in its most extreme result in the writing of history-writing is bad and revisionitas on the one hand, and on the other hand provide incentives for Marxist historiography and others in bentukhistoriografi radical.
India after independence, the writing of history continues to grow primarily through institutions such as:
- Archeological Survey (Department Arkheologi)
- History Records Commission (Commission for Historical Archive)
- Indian History Congress (Congress of History of India)
Ever held a conference on the History of Asia in 1961 and the International meeting of the International Conggres of Orientallis (the International Congress of experts on the East) held in New Delhi in 1965.
Historiography developments in Pakistan since 1947 is less prominent. Separation with India led to a new country is lack of research facilities. Historians Pakistan began to revive the traditions of Islamic historiography. The works produced by A. The most important Yusuf Ali, Shafa 'at Ahmad Khan and I.H. Qureshi, who was famous before the separation with India.
In Sri Lanka the development of historiography rather late. But the results can be seen in publications of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Sri Lanka Branch of the Royal Society Asia), and Ceylon Journal of Historical and Social Studies (Journal of Sri Lanka for history and social studies) who had recently formed.
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