Soekarno
Soekarno, dilahirkan di Surabaya tahun 1901, sesudah menyelesaikan SMA di kota yang sama, ia pindah ke Bandung untuk belajar teknik (THS). Selama masa studinya di Surabaya, Soekarno tinggal di rumah tokoh terkemuka saat itu, H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto dari Sarekat Islam. Dari tokoh ini Soekarno banyak belajar tentang Islam dan masalah yang dihadapi pergerakan nasional ketika itu, yakni pertentangan diantara kaum Nasionalis, Islam, Komunis. Ia dikenal karena memiliki bakat unik untuk menciptakan sintesis antara konsep Barat dan Islam dengan pemikiran yang berasal yang berakar pada aliran mistik Jawa yang dipengaruhi semangat Hindhu-Budha”.
Tidaklah mengherankan kalau pada saat di Bandung dan bergabung
dengan Studi Klub Bandung yang didirikan Iskaq Tjokrohadisuryo yang baru kembali dari Belanda, ia menulis makalah yang terkenal berjudul “Nasionalisme, Islam, dan Marxisme, yang menganjurkan perlunya kerja sama antara ketiga ideologi utama tersebut, sebuah pemikiran yang ternyata kemudian membentuk garis-garis besar pemikiran Soekarno.
Ambisi untuk mempersatukan seluruh pergerakan nasional berhasil, meskipun hanya untuk waktu yang singkat, dengan didirikannya federasi yang dikenal dengan Permufakatan Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia (PPKI)yang terdiri dari semua partai dan persatuan politik seperti Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam, Studi Klub Dr. Sutomo, kaum Sumatra, kaum Sunda, dan kaum Betawi, dan juga partainya sendiri, PNI. Meskipun akhirnya gagal menjadi kekuatan perjuangan, mengutip kata-kata Dahm (1971:65), federasi tersebut masih merupakan sebuah nama dan simbol yang berhasil mengubah “Indonesia dari konsep yang dimiliki beberapa orang intelektual menjadi ide yang hidup dan dipegang oleh seluruh rakyat”.
Soekarno merupakan pimpinan karismatik yang percaya pada gerakan politik massa dan usaha untuk mempersatukan semua unsur masyarakat (marhaen) yaitu :wong cilik seperti buruh, petani, pengrajin, nelayan, pedagang, pengusaha industri kecil, dan pemilik tanah yang dieksploitasi oleh kolonialisme dan imperialisme.
Pada tanggal 4 juni 1927, Soekarno bersama dengan anggota-anggota lain “Studi Klub Bandung”, membentuk Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI) yang bertujuan mencapai kemerdekaan penuh bagi Indonesia atas dasar aksi massa dan tidak bekerja sama dengan Belanda.
Pada tanggal 24 Desember 1929, ia dan beberapa anggota partainya ditangkap dan Soekarno dijatuhi hukuman penjara empat tahun pada tanggal 3
September 1930. Sesudah dibebaskan pada tanggal 31 desember 1931, Soekarno bergabung dengan Partindo yang dibentuk oleh Sartono beberapa bulan sebelumnya, yang tidak lama kemudian menjadi ketuanya dan melanjutkan garis perjuangan dengan semangat nasionalisme yang kuat dan radikal. Terkejut dengan perkembangan partai ini yang begitu cepat, Belanda sekali lagi menangkapnya
pada bulan Agustus 1933, yang tanpa diadili, kemudian diasingkan ke Flores dan dipindahkan kemudian ke Bengkulu, Sumatra Selatan.
Hatta
Mohammad Hatta dilahirkan di Bukit Tinggi, Sumatra Barat, tahun 1902. sesudah menyelesaikan SMA di Jakarta ia berangkat ke Belanda untuk belajar ekonomi politik di Rotterdam. Sebagai mahasiswa ia giat dalam Perhimpunan Indonesia dan kemudian menjadi ketua organisasi mahasiswa yang menerbitkan majalah Indonesia Merdeka, yang menganjurkan kemerdekaan Indonesia dan membahas masalah-masalah di sekitar tujuan itu. Nama “Indonesia” pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh majalah ini sebagai pengganti Nederlands-Indie. Dengan demikian seperti yang diutarakan oleh Dahm bahwa Konsep Politik Indonesia telah lahir
Keanggotaan Perhimpunan Indonesia berasal dari segala bagian kepulauan ini dan mendesak supaya kemerdekaan Indonesia dicapai melalui usaha terpadu dari semua partai dan golongan Indonesia atas dasar tidak bekerja sama dengan Belanda.
Pada tahun 1927-1928, Hatta ditahan selama setengah tahun karena kegiatannya dalam konferensi internasional dan kontak dengan orang-orang komunis dalam pengasingan.Sesudah kembali dari negeri Belanda, Hatta bergabung dengan Partai Pendidikan Nasional yang dikenal sebagai PNI-Pendidikan, yang dibentuk Syahrir tahun 1932, dan tidak lama kemudian ia mengantikan Sjahrir menjadi ketua. Berbeda dengan Soekarno yang memilih gerakan masa sebagai alat politik, Hatta dan Sjahrir lebih menyukai bekerja dengan kader organisasi yang relatif kecil, menekankan pendidikan politik dan latihan untuk orang-orang yang mempunyai kepandaian untuk mempersiapkan kemerdekaan Indonesia.
Pada bulan Februari 1934, Hatta dan Sjahrir ditangkap dan diasingkan tanpa diadili ke Boven Digul, Irian Barat, tetapi kemudian dipindahkan ke Pulau Banda .
Selasa, 14 Juni 2011
Theosentrisme
Theosentrisme memiliki makna yang luas dan dalam. Theosentrisme merupakan filsafat ketuhanan yang bertitik tolak semata-mata kepada kejadian alam. Dalam bukunya yang berjudul “Philosophie” Karl Jaspers (1883) memberikan suatu pembahasan mengenai berbagai macam cara yang dapat menyebabkan manusia mempunyai keinsyafan tentang adanya Tuhan berdasarkan atas hal-hal yang dapat diungkap dengan panca indera. Partama-tama terdapat suatu cara yang formal, yang menunjukkan bahwa segenap pengertian hakiki yag dimiliki oleh manusia senantiasa menunjuk kepada adanya sesuatu yang tidak terbatas. Di samping itu ada cara yang eksistensial, yang menyebabkan manusia menginsyafi bahwa Tuhan terdapat jauh di lubuk hatinya. Juga terdapat cara simbolik, yang menyebabkan orang menginsyafi tentang adanya Tuhan berdasarkan atas hal-hal yang terdapat di dalam mitos-mitos serta tulisan-tulisan keagamaan. Ketiga macam cara tersebut, masing-masing dapat lebih berpengaruh dan diikuti oleh manusia yang satu dibandingkan dengan manusia yang lainnya.
Dalam masalah Teosentrisme, Thomas Aquinas mengajukan lima bukti adanya Tuhan, yaitu:
1. Adanya gerak di dunia mengharuskan kita menerima bahwa ada penggerak pertama, yaitu Tuhan. Menurut Thomas Aquinas apa yang bergerak tentu digerakkan oleh sesuatu yang lain. Seandainya sesuatu yang digerakkan itu menggerakkan dirinya sendiri, maka yang menggerakkan diri sendiri itu harus juga digerakkan olleh sesuatu yang lain, sedang yang menggerakkan ini juga harus digerakkan oleh sesuatu yang lain lagi. Gerak menggerakkan ini tidak dapat berjalan tanpa batas. Maka harus ada penggerak pertama ini adalah Tuhan.
2. Di dalam dunia yang damai terdapat suatu tertib sebab-sebab yang membawa hasil atau yang berdayaguna. Tidak pernah ada sesuatu yang diamati, yang menjadi sebab yang menghasilkan dirinya sendiri. Karena seandainya ada, hal yang menghasilkan dirinya sendiri itu tentu harus mendahului dirinya sendiri. Hal ini tidak mungkin. Sebab yang berdayaguna, yang menghasikan sesuatu yang lain itu, juga tidak dapat ditarik hingga tiada batasnya. Oleh karena itu maka harus ada sebab berdayaguna yang pertama, inilah Tuhan.
3. Di dalam alam semesta terdapat hal-hal yang mungkin “ada” dan “tida ada”. Oleh karena semuanya itu juga dapat rusak, maka ada kemungkinan semuanya itu “ada”, atau semuanya itu “tidak ada”. Tidak mungkin, bahwa semuanya itu senaniasa ada. Sebab apa yang munkin “tidak ada” pada suatu waktu memang “tidak ada”, maka pada suatu waktu mungkin saja tidak ada sesuatu. Jika pengandaian ini benar, maka sekarang juga mungkin tidak ada sesuatu. Pada hal apa yang tidak ada, hanyalah dapat dimulai berada, jika diadakan oleh sesuatu yang telah ada. Jika segala sesuatu hanya mewujudkan kemungkinan saja, tentu harus ada sesuatu yang “adanya” mewujudkan suatu keharusan. Padahal sesuatu yang adanya adalah keharusan, “adanya” itu dapat disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain atau berada sendiri. Seandainya sesuatu yang adanya adalah suatu keharusan disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain atau berada sendiri. Seandainya sesuatu yang adanya adalah suatu keharusan disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain, sebab-sebab itu tak mungkin ditarik hingga tiada batasnya. Oleh karenaitu harus ada sesuatu yang perlu mutlak, yang tak disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain, inilah Tuhan.
4. Diantara segala yang ada terdapat hal-hal yang lebih atau kurang baik, lebih atau kurang benar, dan lain sebagainya. Apa yang disebut kurang baik, atau leb9h baik, itu tentu disesuaikan dengan sesuatu yang menyerupainya, yang dipakai sebagai ukuran. Apa yang lebih baik adalah apa yang lebih mendekati apa yang terbaik. Demikian juga halnya dengan yang kurang benar, yang benar dan yang lebih benar, dan lain sebagainya. Dari ini semua dapat disimpulkan, bahwa harus ada sesuatu yang menjadi sebab dari segala yang baik, segala yang benar, segala yang mulia, dan sebagainya. Yang menyebabkan semuanya itu adalah Tuhan.
5. Kita menyaksikan bahwa segala sesuatu yang tidak berakal, seperti umpamanya;tubuh alamiah, berbuat menuju kepada akhirnya. Hal ini tampak dari caranya segala sesuatu yang tidak berakal tadi berbuat, yaitu senantiasa dengan cara yang sama untuk mencapai hasil yang terbaik. Dari situ tampak jelas, bahwa tidak hanya kebetulan saja semuanya itu mencapai akhirnya, tetapi memang dibuat begitu. Maka apa yang tidak berakal tidak mungkin bergerak menuju akhirnya, jikalau tidak diarahkan oleh sesuatu tokoh yang berakal, berpengetahuan, inilah Tuhan.
Pemikiran August Comte (1798-1857) menempatkan tahap theosentrisme berada pada tahap pertama dalam teori perkembangan pemikiran manusia. Dalam tahap teosentrisme ini ditegaskan bahwa orang mengarahkan rohnya kepada hakikat “batiniah” segala sesuatu, kepada “sebab-pertama” dan “tujuan terakhir” segala sesuatu. Pada taraf pemikiran ini terdapat lagi tiga tahap, yaitu:
1. Tahap yang paling bersahaja atau primitive, ketika orang mengganggap, bahwa segala benda berjiawa (animisme).
2. Tahap ketika orang menurunkan kelompok-kelompok hal-hal tertentu seluruhnya masing-masing diturunkan dari suatu kekuatan adikodrati, yang melatarbelakanginya, sedemikian rupa, sehingga tiap kawasan gejala-gejala memiliki deaa-dewanya sendiri (politiisme).
3. Tahap yang tertinggi, ketika orang mengganti dewa yang bermacam-macam itu dengan satu tokoh tertinggi, yaitu dalam monoteisme.
Mengenai pemikiran agama pada abad ke-20 yang cukup menonjol adalah pemikiran Henri Bergson. Menurut Bergson, agama itu ada dua macam, yaitu:
1. Agama yang statis, yang ttimbul karena hasil karya perkembangan. Di dalam perkembangan ini alam telah memberikan kepada manusia kecakapan untuk menciptakan dongeng-dongeng yang dapat mengikat manusia yangseorang dengan yang lain dan dapat mengikat manusia dengan hidup. Karena akalnya manusia tahu, bahwa ia harus mati. Juga karena akalnya ia tahu, bahwa ada rintangan-rintangan yang tidak terduga, yang merintangi usahanya untuk mencapai tujuannya. Alam telah membantu manusia untuk memikul kesadaran yang pahit ini dengan khayalan-khayalan. Demikianlah timbul agama sebagai alat bertahan terhadap segala sesuatu yang dapat menjadikan manusia putus asa
2. Agama yang dinamis, yang diberikan oleh intuisi. Dengan perantaraan agama ini manusia dapat berhubungan dengan Asas yang lebih tinggi, yang lebih kuasa dari pada dirinya sendiri, yang menyelami dia tanpa menghapuskan kepribadiannya. Karena agama inilah manusia diikatkan kepada hidup dan masyarakatatas dasar yang lebih tinggi. Ia tahu,bahwa ia dengan kuat dihubungkan dengan suatu asas yang lebih tinggi. Bentuk agama yang paling tinggi adalah mistik.
Surajiyo, (2000), Ilmu Filsafat Suatu Pengantar, Jakarta: Institut Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Jakarta, hal.131-132
Dalam masalah Teosentrisme, Thomas Aquinas mengajukan lima bukti adanya Tuhan, yaitu:
1. Adanya gerak di dunia mengharuskan kita menerima bahwa ada penggerak pertama, yaitu Tuhan. Menurut Thomas Aquinas apa yang bergerak tentu digerakkan oleh sesuatu yang lain. Seandainya sesuatu yang digerakkan itu menggerakkan dirinya sendiri, maka yang menggerakkan diri sendiri itu harus juga digerakkan olleh sesuatu yang lain, sedang yang menggerakkan ini juga harus digerakkan oleh sesuatu yang lain lagi. Gerak menggerakkan ini tidak dapat berjalan tanpa batas. Maka harus ada penggerak pertama ini adalah Tuhan.
2. Di dalam dunia yang damai terdapat suatu tertib sebab-sebab yang membawa hasil atau yang berdayaguna. Tidak pernah ada sesuatu yang diamati, yang menjadi sebab yang menghasilkan dirinya sendiri. Karena seandainya ada, hal yang menghasilkan dirinya sendiri itu tentu harus mendahului dirinya sendiri. Hal ini tidak mungkin. Sebab yang berdayaguna, yang menghasikan sesuatu yang lain itu, juga tidak dapat ditarik hingga tiada batasnya. Oleh karena itu maka harus ada sebab berdayaguna yang pertama, inilah Tuhan.
3. Di dalam alam semesta terdapat hal-hal yang mungkin “ada” dan “tida ada”. Oleh karena semuanya itu juga dapat rusak, maka ada kemungkinan semuanya itu “ada”, atau semuanya itu “tidak ada”. Tidak mungkin, bahwa semuanya itu senaniasa ada. Sebab apa yang munkin “tidak ada” pada suatu waktu memang “tidak ada”, maka pada suatu waktu mungkin saja tidak ada sesuatu. Jika pengandaian ini benar, maka sekarang juga mungkin tidak ada sesuatu. Pada hal apa yang tidak ada, hanyalah dapat dimulai berada, jika diadakan oleh sesuatu yang telah ada. Jika segala sesuatu hanya mewujudkan kemungkinan saja, tentu harus ada sesuatu yang “adanya” mewujudkan suatu keharusan. Padahal sesuatu yang adanya adalah keharusan, “adanya” itu dapat disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain atau berada sendiri. Seandainya sesuatu yang adanya adalah suatu keharusan disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain atau berada sendiri. Seandainya sesuatu yang adanya adalah suatu keharusan disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain, sebab-sebab itu tak mungkin ditarik hingga tiada batasnya. Oleh karenaitu harus ada sesuatu yang perlu mutlak, yang tak disebabkan oleh sesuatu yang lain, inilah Tuhan.
4. Diantara segala yang ada terdapat hal-hal yang lebih atau kurang baik, lebih atau kurang benar, dan lain sebagainya. Apa yang disebut kurang baik, atau leb9h baik, itu tentu disesuaikan dengan sesuatu yang menyerupainya, yang dipakai sebagai ukuran. Apa yang lebih baik adalah apa yang lebih mendekati apa yang terbaik. Demikian juga halnya dengan yang kurang benar, yang benar dan yang lebih benar, dan lain sebagainya. Dari ini semua dapat disimpulkan, bahwa harus ada sesuatu yang menjadi sebab dari segala yang baik, segala yang benar, segala yang mulia, dan sebagainya. Yang menyebabkan semuanya itu adalah Tuhan.
5. Kita menyaksikan bahwa segala sesuatu yang tidak berakal, seperti umpamanya;tubuh alamiah, berbuat menuju kepada akhirnya. Hal ini tampak dari caranya segala sesuatu yang tidak berakal tadi berbuat, yaitu senantiasa dengan cara yang sama untuk mencapai hasil yang terbaik. Dari situ tampak jelas, bahwa tidak hanya kebetulan saja semuanya itu mencapai akhirnya, tetapi memang dibuat begitu. Maka apa yang tidak berakal tidak mungkin bergerak menuju akhirnya, jikalau tidak diarahkan oleh sesuatu tokoh yang berakal, berpengetahuan, inilah Tuhan.
Pemikiran August Comte (1798-1857) menempatkan tahap theosentrisme berada pada tahap pertama dalam teori perkembangan pemikiran manusia. Dalam tahap teosentrisme ini ditegaskan bahwa orang mengarahkan rohnya kepada hakikat “batiniah” segala sesuatu, kepada “sebab-pertama” dan “tujuan terakhir” segala sesuatu. Pada taraf pemikiran ini terdapat lagi tiga tahap, yaitu:
1. Tahap yang paling bersahaja atau primitive, ketika orang mengganggap, bahwa segala benda berjiawa (animisme).
2. Tahap ketika orang menurunkan kelompok-kelompok hal-hal tertentu seluruhnya masing-masing diturunkan dari suatu kekuatan adikodrati, yang melatarbelakanginya, sedemikian rupa, sehingga tiap kawasan gejala-gejala memiliki deaa-dewanya sendiri (politiisme).
3. Tahap yang tertinggi, ketika orang mengganti dewa yang bermacam-macam itu dengan satu tokoh tertinggi, yaitu dalam monoteisme.
Mengenai pemikiran agama pada abad ke-20 yang cukup menonjol adalah pemikiran Henri Bergson. Menurut Bergson, agama itu ada dua macam, yaitu:
1. Agama yang statis, yang ttimbul karena hasil karya perkembangan. Di dalam perkembangan ini alam telah memberikan kepada manusia kecakapan untuk menciptakan dongeng-dongeng yang dapat mengikat manusia yangseorang dengan yang lain dan dapat mengikat manusia dengan hidup. Karena akalnya manusia tahu, bahwa ia harus mati. Juga karena akalnya ia tahu, bahwa ada rintangan-rintangan yang tidak terduga, yang merintangi usahanya untuk mencapai tujuannya. Alam telah membantu manusia untuk memikul kesadaran yang pahit ini dengan khayalan-khayalan. Demikianlah timbul agama sebagai alat bertahan terhadap segala sesuatu yang dapat menjadikan manusia putus asa
2. Agama yang dinamis, yang diberikan oleh intuisi. Dengan perantaraan agama ini manusia dapat berhubungan dengan Asas yang lebih tinggi, yang lebih kuasa dari pada dirinya sendiri, yang menyelami dia tanpa menghapuskan kepribadiannya. Karena agama inilah manusia diikatkan kepada hidup dan masyarakatatas dasar yang lebih tinggi. Ia tahu,bahwa ia dengan kuat dihubungkan dengan suatu asas yang lebih tinggi. Bentuk agama yang paling tinggi adalah mistik.
Surajiyo, (2000), Ilmu Filsafat Suatu Pengantar, Jakarta: Institut Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Jakarta, hal.131-132
Historiografi Asia Tenggara
A. Ciri-Ciri Historiografi Tradisional di Asia Tenggara
Spereti yang telah dijelaskan pada latar belakang, bahwa historiografi tradisional Asia Tenggara sebelum abad ke-XX masih dipengaruhi oleh agama. Berdasarkan agama itulah maka historiografi di Indonesia dapat dibedakan kedalam empat wilayah yang meiliki agama dan pengalaman baca tulis yang berbeda. Penggolongan ini digunakan untuk menjelaskan secara jelas mengani historiografi di Indonesia. Adapun keempat wiilayah Asia Tenggara tersebut adalah sebagai berikut;
1. Pengaruh Agama Theravada di Muangthai dan Kamboja
Bangsa Mon adalah bangsa yang banyak mendiami daerah daerah-daerah di Burma. Negara Burma yang berbatasan dengan India, membuat negara ini mayoritas penganut agama Budha yang juga berasal dari India. Agama Budha yang dianut oleh para bangsa Mon berbeda dengan yang ada di India. Penduduk Mon banyak menganut agam Budha Theravada Sinhala yang masuk ke Burma pada tahun 1190 yang menyebar pada abad ke-13 dari bangsa Mon dna Burma ke bangsa Shan, Thai Laos dan Kamboja. Threvada yang telah berkembang bangsa-bangsa diluar bangsa Mon ini tidak diterima utuh oleh masyarakat setempat, namun terjadi alkulturasi dengan agama-agama masyarakat pribumi. Berkembangnya agama Budha Theravada ini semakin menggusur keberadaan Budha Mahayana dan Hindu yang sebelumnya banyak berkembang di Asia tenggara. Namun demikian agama Budha Mahayana dan hindu masih dianut oleh kaum elit di Asia Tenggara.
Setelah masuknya agama Theravada Sinhala membuat agama Budha Hinayyana yang sebelumnya dinut Kerajaan Pagan (pemerinthan Anawratalah) ulai tergantikan. Tepatnya pada masa pemerintahan raja naraphatisitu banyak kebudayaan dan karya sastra yang dibuat didasarkan pada ajaran agama Theravada. Misalnya pada abad ke-13 bangsa Mon menyusun sebuah kronik (Rajawan dan berbagai bentuk Genelogis) yang menetapkan suatu tradisi penggabungan data-data mengenai dinasti, anekdot mengenai raja-raja, serta berbagai mitos dan legenda yang memberikan arti pada setiap pemerintahan. Tradisi ini semakin diperkuat denagn pemasukan ksadaran kronologi yang lebih teliti dalam komposisi tulisan yang dibuat oleh bangsa Mon.
Salah satu kronik yang dibuat oleh orang-orang Burma adalah Yazawin (Kronik Burma) yang berasal dari abad ke-18 dan abad ke-19 yang merupakan:
a. Tulisan asli Burma dengan animisme lokal dan konsep mengenai raja serta kosmologi Birma sendiri
b. Karya ini disusun oleh para biarawan serta para brahmana terpelajar.
c. Mengandung bahan-bahan berharga bagi tulisan-tulisan pertama dari orang-orang Eropa mengenai Burma.
Tradisi seperti ii juga berkembang di Muangthai atau Thailand. Tidak jauh berbeda perkembangan tradisi ini juga dibawa oleh para biarawan dan menteri yang terpelajar yang berasal dari Sri Langka, yang dimungkinkan berasal dari bangsa yang berbahasa Mon-Khmer yang tinggal dilembah sungai Menam. Namun sebagian besar kronik ini musnah ketika Ayuthia diserbu Burma pada tahun 1767 yang dipimpin oleh Raja Hsin Byusin. Yang mana Ayuthia kalah dalam ppeprangan ini. Dari semua kronik yang masih tercatat adalah Pongsawadan yang disusun pada tahun 1680 dan meliputi antara tahun 1350-1605. bentuk kronik in kebali dikembangkan pada akhir abad ke-18. kebanyakan kronik di Muangthai, Kamboja, Burma dan negara-negara Malaysia seperti onghala dan Saiburi dibentuk dalam bentuk kronik tersebut.
2. Pengaruh Islam di Indonesia, Malaysia dan Filipina Selatan
Hampir seluruh wilayah di Asia Tenggara mendapat pengaruh agama Hindu dan Budha yang berasal dari India. Namun dalam perkembangannya wilayah Indoneisa, Malaysia dan fillipina bagian selatan mendapat pengaruh dari agama Islam, yang kemudian membuat agama Hindu dan Budha kehilangan landasannya di tga daerah tersebut. Dalam awal penulisan sejarah tradisional di Indonesia agama Hindu dan budha memeganga peranan yang cukup penting.
Orang-orang Jawa bnayak meninggalakan monumen dan inskripsi-inskripsi yang bercorak Hindu-Budha. Tidak hanya berupa monumen, sajak-sajak epik seperti Negarakertagama, Pararaton, Babad tanah Jawi (abad 14-17), pemujaan pujangga-pujangga keraton terhadap raja, penyusunan geneologi, serta penyempurnaan sajak-sajak. Orang Jawa dan melayu memiliki kesadaran kontinuitas, keinginan untuk meneruskan kekuasaan yang sah dan kedaulatan tokoh dimasa lampau dengan asal-usul sejarah mereka., selalu dipertahankan hingga berabad-abad. Hal tersebut menyebabkan ketidakadanya ketep[atan kronologis.
Tulisan-tulisan dalam bahasa melayu lebih berkembang sebagai sejarah, misalnya saja Kitab Sejarah Melayu yang berisi tentang Kerjaan Johor dan Riaulingga. Selain itu juga kronik bersajak seperti Sha’ir Perang Mekasar. Tulisan-tulisan dalam bahasa melayu ini merupakan uraian mengenai dan tempat hidup, namun belum terdapat kronologis, walaupun deikian lukisan mengenai hubungan antara tokoh lebih tepat. Tidak banyak tulisan yang berbau mitos dan lebih banyakl terkandung unsur nilai-nilai tentang kepatuhandan kejujuran. Selain digunakan untuk mendidik juga digunakan untuk menghibur. Contoh yang menonjol dalam sejarah melayu adalah tentang sejarah sosial” Misa Melayu, Hikayat Abdullah dan Tuhfal-ul Nafls (abad 18-19).
3. Pengaruh Agam dan Budaya Cina di Vietnam
Vietnam bagian Utara adalah salah satu daerah jajahan atau fasal Cina. Selama pendudukan Cina di Vietnam Utara banyak pengaruh yang diberikan Cina terhadap Vietnam. Seperti daerah jajahannya Cina lainnya (Korea dan Jepang), Cina juga menanamkan kebudayaan yang mereka miliki kedaerah fasal mereka. Penjajahan Cina itu membuat berhasil menentukan sifat dan historiografi di Vietnam Utara. Karya-karya tradisional seperti Cina masih ada sampai abad ke 19 dan ke 20.
Setelah Vietnam melepaskan diri dari penguasaan Cina, Vietnam masih memegang peradapan Cina yang telah ditanamkan sebelumnya. Agama Theravada yang berhasil menaklukkan sebagian Indocina atau Asia Tenggara Kontinental tidak serta-merta membuat keyakinan bangsa Vietnam beralih agama. Sehingga Vietnam tidak terpengaruh dan tetap menganut agama Budha Mahayana dari alirn di Cina. Sehingga karya-karya yang dihasilkan di vietnam jauh berbeda dengan negara Indocina lainnya yang terpengaruh oleh agama Theravada.
4. Pengaruh Agama Kristen di Fllipana
Ketika mulai berkembangnya pelayaran samudra yang raai dilakukan oleh bangsa Barat, hal itu mendorong orang-orang Spanyol untuk melakukan perjalanan. Pada abad ke-16 spanyol berhasil sampai dan menduduki kawasan Fillipina. Spanyol yang masuk ke Fillipina membawa asas 3G (Gold, Glory dan Gospel). Penyebaran agama katolik di fillipina mebuat masuk pula bentuk historiografi tradisional katolik Roma yang berkembang berkembang sejajar dengan kronil berbahasa Melayu di kepulauan Sulu. Tradisi ini masih berkembang sampai abad ke-19 dan sisanya masih ada hingga sekarang.
B. Ciri-ciri Historiografi Tradisional
Sejarah di Asia Tenggara sering dikatakan tidak memiliki keutuhan tema hingga masuknya peradaban industri modern, yakni selama seratus tahun terakhir. Ada tradisi yang memiliki asal-usul yang sama, namun berkembang menjadi tradisi yang khas di masing-masing wilayah sesuai dengan kebudayaan masing-masing wilayah. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa terdapat ciri-ciri asli yang khusus dari masing-asing bangsa. Ciri-ciri yang memiliki kesamaan antara negara di Asia Tenggara antara lain:
1. karya-karya yang dihasilkan baik di bagian geneologi namun terdapat kelemahan dalam hal kronologi dan detil-detil biografis.
2. tulisan pada masa ini lebih ditekankan pada gaya bercerita, bahan-bahan anekdot, dan pengguanaan agama sebagai alat pengajaran sejarah.
3. bila karya-karya tersebut bersifat sekuler maka nampak adanya persamaan da;lam hal perhatian terhadap kingship (konsep mengenai Raja), serta tekanan diletakkan pada kontibuitas dan loyalitas yang ortodoks.
4. Pertimbangan-pertimbangan astorlogis dan kosmologis cenderung untuk menyampaikan menegenai sebab-akibat dan ide kemajuan (progress).
Walaupun terletak disatu kawasan yang sama, namun terdapat ula perbedaan-perbedaan dalam historiografi di Asia tenggara. Adapun perbedaan itu antara lain adalah sebagai berikut:
1. persaingan nasional memperngaruhi karya mengenai bangsa-bangsa yang bertetangga, misalnya karya-karya orang Burma dan Muangthai.
2. perbedaaan bahasa di Asia tenggara sebelum terbentuknya bahasa Pali banyak karya-karya yang tidak dapat dibaca oleh orang dari luar bangsa tersebut.
3. kebijakan-kebijakanRaja mengenai penulisan sejarah yang beragam. Misalnya, karya-karya islam dan Melayu diedarkan dikalangan umum, sedangkan karya-krya yang dihasilkan orang-orang Muangthai dan Burma serta Vietnam hanya digunakan untuk kepentingan pihak resmi.
4. agama telah memilsahkan agama para sejarawan Indo-islam dari konteks sosio-ekonomi agama Hindu. Agama juga memisahkan orang-orang Muangthai dari Historiografi Asia Timur di Vietnam. Agama juga memisahkan antara Melayu-jawa dari orang-orang Muangthai, Burma disatu pihak dan orang Fillipina di pihak lain.
C. Historiografi Asia Tenggara Modern
Historiografi Modern tumbuh dan telah berkembang di Eropa jauh sebelum di perkembangan historiografi di Asia Tenggara. Historiografi modern baru berkembang di Asia Tenggara pada pertenaghan abad ke-19, setelah ilmu pengetahuan dan kebudayaan barat mulai masuk di kawasan Asia Tenggara. Karena pendudukan orang eropa yang tidak menyeluruh sehngga tidak memungkinkan penyebaran ilmu pengetahuan secara menyeluruh, sehingga tidak memungkinkan untuk mengembangkan historiografi modern. Pada abad ke-16 sampai ke-19 kebnyakkan hasil tulisan sejarah banyak ditulis oleh orang-orang Eropa. Penulisan sejarah yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Eropa belum dapat mempengaruhi bentuk historiografi di Asia Tenggara. Berikut adalah beberapa contoh historiografi modern di Asia tenggara:
1. Indonesia dan Malaysia
Pembentukkan Btavia Genootscap voor kunsten en Wetenshappen (Perhimpunan Batavia untuk seni dan Ilmu Pengetahuan) tahun 1778, buku karya William Marsden Hiatory of Sumatra (1783), serta buku karya Raffles History of Java (1817), sedikit sekali merangsang penulisan sejarah di Indonesia. Pada akhir abad ke -19 dengan dihidupkannya kembali Perhimpunan Batavia untuk seni dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, serta dibentuknya Cabang Straits dari masyarakat kerajaan Asia pada tahun 1878, mulailah dilakukan kegiatan ilmiah mulai berkembang di Indoneisa dan Malaysia. Walaupun demikian penulisan babad masih tetap ada.
2. Burma dan muangthai
Tidak hanya di Indonesia, orang-orang Eropa di Burma dan Muangthai juga menulis karya sejarah. Misalnya, Arthur Phrye (History of Burma, 1883), WAR Wood (A History of Siam, 1902) serta beberapa majalah Ilmiah seperti Juenal masyarakat Burma dan Jurnal masyarakat Muangthai. Para penulis dari Eropa it sangat bergantung pada penelitian setempat.
3. Vietnam
Sejarawan tradisional Vietnam banyak membantu sarjana-sarjana Perancis yang tergabung dalam Ecole Francais d’Etreme Orient (Sekolah perancis Mengenai timur Jauh), yang didirikan tahun 1900 dan bertujuan untuk engembangkan ilmu sosiologi yang sudah muali berkembang di Perancis pada saat itu. Karya-karya yang dibuat sarjana-sarjana Pernacis tersebut diterbitkan dalam sbuah buletin. Selain itu arsip-arsip kerajaan Hue masih menyimpan dokumen-dokumen secara tradisional samapai beberapa tahun sebelum pendudukan Perancis. Sehingga semakin mempermudah penelitian yang dilakukan oleh sarjana-sarjana asal Perancia.
4. Fillipina
Pada masa pendudukan Amerika, banyak sarjana Amerika yang mempelajari sejarah Filipina dari dokumen-dokumen kolonial dan dokumen-dokemen missi Spanyol. Salah satu karya yang penting adalah, karya E. H Blair dan J A Robertson (The Phillipine Island, 1493-1889) yang terdiri dari 55 jilid dan diterbitkan tahun 1903-1909.
Pada abad ke-19 dan sebagian abad ke-20 terdapat tiga bidang historiografi Indonesia yang berbeda-beda. Antara lain;
1. Sejarah Kuno adalah sejarah yang tidak atau kurang dikenal oleh masyarakat asli, biasanya ditulis oleh para fiolog, epigraf dan para Arkeolog. Salah satu contohnya adalah karya N.J Krom engenai sejarah kuno Indonesia.
2. Sejarah Koonial biasanya mencakup masalah perdagangan, perang, perjanjian-perjanjian, dan administrasi orang-orang eropa.
3. Sejarah Tengah atau periode tengah, sejarah yang berkisaran antara empat sampai sepuluh abad sebelum abad ke-19, yang merupakan penulisan sejarah penuduk asli, metode-metode modern dapat mulai digunakan, menentukan tanggal secara tepat dan malah mengintepretasikan kembali dari periode-periode ini.
Di Muangthain dan fillipina perkembangan historiografi agak sedikit berbeda. Di Muangthai d Universitas Chulalongkorn pada tahun 1917 mengajarkan mengenai sejarah kuno dan sejarah modern. Sedangkan di Fillipina pada tahun 1611 universitas seperti Santo Thomas tidak mengajarkan sejarah sekuler, tetapi sejak akhir abad ke-19 mulai banyak memperkenalkan metode-metode sejarah yang modern. Tahun 1908 orang-orang Amerika mendirikanuniversitas di Filipina dna mengajarkan sejarah modern.
Setelah berakhirnya Perang Dunia II dan bangsa-bangsa di Asia Tenggara merdeka, mereka mulai mengambil langkah-langkah baru dalam historiografi, antara laiin:
1. Diterbitkannya buku DGE Hall mengenai sejarah Asia tenggata tahun 1955 semakin menyadarkan bangsa-bangsa di Asia Tenggara perkembangan sejarah dari kuno hingga modern merupakan unit sejarah yang lengkap.
2. Hasil penelitian J.C. Van Leur merangsang timbulnya sejumlah karangan mengenai historiografi Indonesa yang dicetuskan dalam seminar nasional I tahun 1957.
3. Usaha membentuk pertemuan Internasional Association of Historians of Asia, yang melakukan kongres tiga atau empat tahun sekali.
D. Ciri-ciri Historiografi Modern Asia Tenggara
Di kawasan Asia Tenggara khususnya Indonesia, Burma, Malaysia dan filipina, historiografi modern sedang dikonfrontasikan dengan nasionalisme. Seperti terlihat dalam bentuk penulisan sejarah pasca proklamasi, kebanyakkan tulisan dibuat guna membangkitkan semangat nasional untuk melawan penjajahan Belanda. Untuk menunjukkan bahwa bangsa Belanda itu sebagia bangsa yang jahat dan selalu merugikan bangsa Indonesia. Sehingga penulisan sejarah pada masa ini banyak terdapat mengenai tokoh-tokoh besar, seperti Pangeran Diponegoro, dan lain sebagainya.
Pada sejarah modern di Asia Tenggara masih mengutamakan sejarah Nasional dibandingkan dengan sejarah ilmiah. Namun dalam perkembangannya sekarang ini para sejarawan sudah mulai banyak menggun akan metode-metode dalam penulisan sejarah.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Anggar Kaswani. 1998. Metodologi Sejarah dan Historiografi. Yogyakarta: Beta offset.
Danar Widiyanto. 2002. Perkembangan Historiografi: Tinjauan Di Berbagai Wilayah Dunia. Yogyakarta: UNY
D. G. E. Hall. 1968. Sejarah Asia Tenggara. Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.
Sartono Kartodirjo. 1982. Pemikiran dan perkembangan historiografi Indonesia. Jakarta: Gramedia.
. 1985. Ilmu Sejarah dan Historiografi:Arah dan Perspekti: Gramediaf Taufik Abdullah & Abdurrachman Suryomiharjo. Jakarta
Toynbee. Arnold. 2006. Sejarah Umat Manusia: Uraian Analitis, Kronologis, Naratf dan Komparatif. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
diambil dari:http://defie88.multiply.com/journal/item/2
Spereti yang telah dijelaskan pada latar belakang, bahwa historiografi tradisional Asia Tenggara sebelum abad ke-XX masih dipengaruhi oleh agama. Berdasarkan agama itulah maka historiografi di Indonesia dapat dibedakan kedalam empat wilayah yang meiliki agama dan pengalaman baca tulis yang berbeda. Penggolongan ini digunakan untuk menjelaskan secara jelas mengani historiografi di Indonesia. Adapun keempat wiilayah Asia Tenggara tersebut adalah sebagai berikut;
1. Pengaruh Agama Theravada di Muangthai dan Kamboja
Bangsa Mon adalah bangsa yang banyak mendiami daerah daerah-daerah di Burma. Negara Burma yang berbatasan dengan India, membuat negara ini mayoritas penganut agama Budha yang juga berasal dari India. Agama Budha yang dianut oleh para bangsa Mon berbeda dengan yang ada di India. Penduduk Mon banyak menganut agam Budha Theravada Sinhala yang masuk ke Burma pada tahun 1190 yang menyebar pada abad ke-13 dari bangsa Mon dna Burma ke bangsa Shan, Thai Laos dan Kamboja. Threvada yang telah berkembang bangsa-bangsa diluar bangsa Mon ini tidak diterima utuh oleh masyarakat setempat, namun terjadi alkulturasi dengan agama-agama masyarakat pribumi. Berkembangnya agama Budha Theravada ini semakin menggusur keberadaan Budha Mahayana dan Hindu yang sebelumnya banyak berkembang di Asia tenggara. Namun demikian agama Budha Mahayana dan hindu masih dianut oleh kaum elit di Asia Tenggara.
Setelah masuknya agama Theravada Sinhala membuat agama Budha Hinayyana yang sebelumnya dinut Kerajaan Pagan (pemerinthan Anawratalah) ulai tergantikan. Tepatnya pada masa pemerintahan raja naraphatisitu banyak kebudayaan dan karya sastra yang dibuat didasarkan pada ajaran agama Theravada. Misalnya pada abad ke-13 bangsa Mon menyusun sebuah kronik (Rajawan dan berbagai bentuk Genelogis) yang menetapkan suatu tradisi penggabungan data-data mengenai dinasti, anekdot mengenai raja-raja, serta berbagai mitos dan legenda yang memberikan arti pada setiap pemerintahan. Tradisi ini semakin diperkuat denagn pemasukan ksadaran kronologi yang lebih teliti dalam komposisi tulisan yang dibuat oleh bangsa Mon.
Salah satu kronik yang dibuat oleh orang-orang Burma adalah Yazawin (Kronik Burma) yang berasal dari abad ke-18 dan abad ke-19 yang merupakan:
a. Tulisan asli Burma dengan animisme lokal dan konsep mengenai raja serta kosmologi Birma sendiri
b. Karya ini disusun oleh para biarawan serta para brahmana terpelajar.
c. Mengandung bahan-bahan berharga bagi tulisan-tulisan pertama dari orang-orang Eropa mengenai Burma.
Tradisi seperti ii juga berkembang di Muangthai atau Thailand. Tidak jauh berbeda perkembangan tradisi ini juga dibawa oleh para biarawan dan menteri yang terpelajar yang berasal dari Sri Langka, yang dimungkinkan berasal dari bangsa yang berbahasa Mon-Khmer yang tinggal dilembah sungai Menam. Namun sebagian besar kronik ini musnah ketika Ayuthia diserbu Burma pada tahun 1767 yang dipimpin oleh Raja Hsin Byusin. Yang mana Ayuthia kalah dalam ppeprangan ini. Dari semua kronik yang masih tercatat adalah Pongsawadan yang disusun pada tahun 1680 dan meliputi antara tahun 1350-1605. bentuk kronik in kebali dikembangkan pada akhir abad ke-18. kebanyakan kronik di Muangthai, Kamboja, Burma dan negara-negara Malaysia seperti onghala dan Saiburi dibentuk dalam bentuk kronik tersebut.
2. Pengaruh Islam di Indonesia, Malaysia dan Filipina Selatan
Hampir seluruh wilayah di Asia Tenggara mendapat pengaruh agama Hindu dan Budha yang berasal dari India. Namun dalam perkembangannya wilayah Indoneisa, Malaysia dan fillipina bagian selatan mendapat pengaruh dari agama Islam, yang kemudian membuat agama Hindu dan Budha kehilangan landasannya di tga daerah tersebut. Dalam awal penulisan sejarah tradisional di Indonesia agama Hindu dan budha memeganga peranan yang cukup penting.
Orang-orang Jawa bnayak meninggalakan monumen dan inskripsi-inskripsi yang bercorak Hindu-Budha. Tidak hanya berupa monumen, sajak-sajak epik seperti Negarakertagama, Pararaton, Babad tanah Jawi (abad 14-17), pemujaan pujangga-pujangga keraton terhadap raja, penyusunan geneologi, serta penyempurnaan sajak-sajak. Orang Jawa dan melayu memiliki kesadaran kontinuitas, keinginan untuk meneruskan kekuasaan yang sah dan kedaulatan tokoh dimasa lampau dengan asal-usul sejarah mereka., selalu dipertahankan hingga berabad-abad. Hal tersebut menyebabkan ketidakadanya ketep[atan kronologis.
Tulisan-tulisan dalam bahasa melayu lebih berkembang sebagai sejarah, misalnya saja Kitab Sejarah Melayu yang berisi tentang Kerjaan Johor dan Riaulingga. Selain itu juga kronik bersajak seperti Sha’ir Perang Mekasar. Tulisan-tulisan dalam bahasa melayu ini merupakan uraian mengenai dan tempat hidup, namun belum terdapat kronologis, walaupun deikian lukisan mengenai hubungan antara tokoh lebih tepat. Tidak banyak tulisan yang berbau mitos dan lebih banyakl terkandung unsur nilai-nilai tentang kepatuhandan kejujuran. Selain digunakan untuk mendidik juga digunakan untuk menghibur. Contoh yang menonjol dalam sejarah melayu adalah tentang sejarah sosial” Misa Melayu, Hikayat Abdullah dan Tuhfal-ul Nafls (abad 18-19).
3. Pengaruh Agam dan Budaya Cina di Vietnam
Vietnam bagian Utara adalah salah satu daerah jajahan atau fasal Cina. Selama pendudukan Cina di Vietnam Utara banyak pengaruh yang diberikan Cina terhadap Vietnam. Seperti daerah jajahannya Cina lainnya (Korea dan Jepang), Cina juga menanamkan kebudayaan yang mereka miliki kedaerah fasal mereka. Penjajahan Cina itu membuat berhasil menentukan sifat dan historiografi di Vietnam Utara. Karya-karya tradisional seperti Cina masih ada sampai abad ke 19 dan ke 20.
Setelah Vietnam melepaskan diri dari penguasaan Cina, Vietnam masih memegang peradapan Cina yang telah ditanamkan sebelumnya. Agama Theravada yang berhasil menaklukkan sebagian Indocina atau Asia Tenggara Kontinental tidak serta-merta membuat keyakinan bangsa Vietnam beralih agama. Sehingga Vietnam tidak terpengaruh dan tetap menganut agama Budha Mahayana dari alirn di Cina. Sehingga karya-karya yang dihasilkan di vietnam jauh berbeda dengan negara Indocina lainnya yang terpengaruh oleh agama Theravada.
4. Pengaruh Agama Kristen di Fllipana
Ketika mulai berkembangnya pelayaran samudra yang raai dilakukan oleh bangsa Barat, hal itu mendorong orang-orang Spanyol untuk melakukan perjalanan. Pada abad ke-16 spanyol berhasil sampai dan menduduki kawasan Fillipina. Spanyol yang masuk ke Fillipina membawa asas 3G (Gold, Glory dan Gospel). Penyebaran agama katolik di fillipina mebuat masuk pula bentuk historiografi tradisional katolik Roma yang berkembang berkembang sejajar dengan kronil berbahasa Melayu di kepulauan Sulu. Tradisi ini masih berkembang sampai abad ke-19 dan sisanya masih ada hingga sekarang.
B. Ciri-ciri Historiografi Tradisional
Sejarah di Asia Tenggara sering dikatakan tidak memiliki keutuhan tema hingga masuknya peradaban industri modern, yakni selama seratus tahun terakhir. Ada tradisi yang memiliki asal-usul yang sama, namun berkembang menjadi tradisi yang khas di masing-masing wilayah sesuai dengan kebudayaan masing-masing wilayah. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa terdapat ciri-ciri asli yang khusus dari masing-asing bangsa. Ciri-ciri yang memiliki kesamaan antara negara di Asia Tenggara antara lain:
1. karya-karya yang dihasilkan baik di bagian geneologi namun terdapat kelemahan dalam hal kronologi dan detil-detil biografis.
2. tulisan pada masa ini lebih ditekankan pada gaya bercerita, bahan-bahan anekdot, dan pengguanaan agama sebagai alat pengajaran sejarah.
3. bila karya-karya tersebut bersifat sekuler maka nampak adanya persamaan da;lam hal perhatian terhadap kingship (konsep mengenai Raja), serta tekanan diletakkan pada kontibuitas dan loyalitas yang ortodoks.
4. Pertimbangan-pertimbangan astorlogis dan kosmologis cenderung untuk menyampaikan menegenai sebab-akibat dan ide kemajuan (progress).
Walaupun terletak disatu kawasan yang sama, namun terdapat ula perbedaan-perbedaan dalam historiografi di Asia tenggara. Adapun perbedaan itu antara lain adalah sebagai berikut:
1. persaingan nasional memperngaruhi karya mengenai bangsa-bangsa yang bertetangga, misalnya karya-karya orang Burma dan Muangthai.
2. perbedaaan bahasa di Asia tenggara sebelum terbentuknya bahasa Pali banyak karya-karya yang tidak dapat dibaca oleh orang dari luar bangsa tersebut.
3. kebijakan-kebijakanRaja mengenai penulisan sejarah yang beragam. Misalnya, karya-karya islam dan Melayu diedarkan dikalangan umum, sedangkan karya-krya yang dihasilkan orang-orang Muangthai dan Burma serta Vietnam hanya digunakan untuk kepentingan pihak resmi.
4. agama telah memilsahkan agama para sejarawan Indo-islam dari konteks sosio-ekonomi agama Hindu. Agama juga memisahkan orang-orang Muangthai dari Historiografi Asia Timur di Vietnam. Agama juga memisahkan antara Melayu-jawa dari orang-orang Muangthai, Burma disatu pihak dan orang Fillipina di pihak lain.
C. Historiografi Asia Tenggara Modern
Historiografi Modern tumbuh dan telah berkembang di Eropa jauh sebelum di perkembangan historiografi di Asia Tenggara. Historiografi modern baru berkembang di Asia Tenggara pada pertenaghan abad ke-19, setelah ilmu pengetahuan dan kebudayaan barat mulai masuk di kawasan Asia Tenggara. Karena pendudukan orang eropa yang tidak menyeluruh sehngga tidak memungkinkan penyebaran ilmu pengetahuan secara menyeluruh, sehingga tidak memungkinkan untuk mengembangkan historiografi modern. Pada abad ke-16 sampai ke-19 kebnyakkan hasil tulisan sejarah banyak ditulis oleh orang-orang Eropa. Penulisan sejarah yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang Eropa belum dapat mempengaruhi bentuk historiografi di Asia Tenggara. Berikut adalah beberapa contoh historiografi modern di Asia tenggara:
1. Indonesia dan Malaysia
Pembentukkan Btavia Genootscap voor kunsten en Wetenshappen (Perhimpunan Batavia untuk seni dan Ilmu Pengetahuan) tahun 1778, buku karya William Marsden Hiatory of Sumatra (1783), serta buku karya Raffles History of Java (1817), sedikit sekali merangsang penulisan sejarah di Indonesia. Pada akhir abad ke -19 dengan dihidupkannya kembali Perhimpunan Batavia untuk seni dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, serta dibentuknya Cabang Straits dari masyarakat kerajaan Asia pada tahun 1878, mulailah dilakukan kegiatan ilmiah mulai berkembang di Indoneisa dan Malaysia. Walaupun demikian penulisan babad masih tetap ada.
2. Burma dan muangthai
Tidak hanya di Indonesia, orang-orang Eropa di Burma dan Muangthai juga menulis karya sejarah. Misalnya, Arthur Phrye (History of Burma, 1883), WAR Wood (A History of Siam, 1902) serta beberapa majalah Ilmiah seperti Juenal masyarakat Burma dan Jurnal masyarakat Muangthai. Para penulis dari Eropa it sangat bergantung pada penelitian setempat.
3. Vietnam
Sejarawan tradisional Vietnam banyak membantu sarjana-sarjana Perancis yang tergabung dalam Ecole Francais d’Etreme Orient (Sekolah perancis Mengenai timur Jauh), yang didirikan tahun 1900 dan bertujuan untuk engembangkan ilmu sosiologi yang sudah muali berkembang di Perancis pada saat itu. Karya-karya yang dibuat sarjana-sarjana Pernacis tersebut diterbitkan dalam sbuah buletin. Selain itu arsip-arsip kerajaan Hue masih menyimpan dokumen-dokumen secara tradisional samapai beberapa tahun sebelum pendudukan Perancis. Sehingga semakin mempermudah penelitian yang dilakukan oleh sarjana-sarjana asal Perancia.
4. Fillipina
Pada masa pendudukan Amerika, banyak sarjana Amerika yang mempelajari sejarah Filipina dari dokumen-dokumen kolonial dan dokumen-dokemen missi Spanyol. Salah satu karya yang penting adalah, karya E. H Blair dan J A Robertson (The Phillipine Island, 1493-1889) yang terdiri dari 55 jilid dan diterbitkan tahun 1903-1909.
Pada abad ke-19 dan sebagian abad ke-20 terdapat tiga bidang historiografi Indonesia yang berbeda-beda. Antara lain;
1. Sejarah Kuno adalah sejarah yang tidak atau kurang dikenal oleh masyarakat asli, biasanya ditulis oleh para fiolog, epigraf dan para Arkeolog. Salah satu contohnya adalah karya N.J Krom engenai sejarah kuno Indonesia.
2. Sejarah Koonial biasanya mencakup masalah perdagangan, perang, perjanjian-perjanjian, dan administrasi orang-orang eropa.
3. Sejarah Tengah atau periode tengah, sejarah yang berkisaran antara empat sampai sepuluh abad sebelum abad ke-19, yang merupakan penulisan sejarah penuduk asli, metode-metode modern dapat mulai digunakan, menentukan tanggal secara tepat dan malah mengintepretasikan kembali dari periode-periode ini.
Di Muangthain dan fillipina perkembangan historiografi agak sedikit berbeda. Di Muangthai d Universitas Chulalongkorn pada tahun 1917 mengajarkan mengenai sejarah kuno dan sejarah modern. Sedangkan di Fillipina pada tahun 1611 universitas seperti Santo Thomas tidak mengajarkan sejarah sekuler, tetapi sejak akhir abad ke-19 mulai banyak memperkenalkan metode-metode sejarah yang modern. Tahun 1908 orang-orang Amerika mendirikanuniversitas di Filipina dna mengajarkan sejarah modern.
Setelah berakhirnya Perang Dunia II dan bangsa-bangsa di Asia Tenggara merdeka, mereka mulai mengambil langkah-langkah baru dalam historiografi, antara laiin:
1. Diterbitkannya buku DGE Hall mengenai sejarah Asia tenggata tahun 1955 semakin menyadarkan bangsa-bangsa di Asia Tenggara perkembangan sejarah dari kuno hingga modern merupakan unit sejarah yang lengkap.
2. Hasil penelitian J.C. Van Leur merangsang timbulnya sejumlah karangan mengenai historiografi Indonesa yang dicetuskan dalam seminar nasional I tahun 1957.
3. Usaha membentuk pertemuan Internasional Association of Historians of Asia, yang melakukan kongres tiga atau empat tahun sekali.
D. Ciri-ciri Historiografi Modern Asia Tenggara
Di kawasan Asia Tenggara khususnya Indonesia, Burma, Malaysia dan filipina, historiografi modern sedang dikonfrontasikan dengan nasionalisme. Seperti terlihat dalam bentuk penulisan sejarah pasca proklamasi, kebanyakkan tulisan dibuat guna membangkitkan semangat nasional untuk melawan penjajahan Belanda. Untuk menunjukkan bahwa bangsa Belanda itu sebagia bangsa yang jahat dan selalu merugikan bangsa Indonesia. Sehingga penulisan sejarah pada masa ini banyak terdapat mengenai tokoh-tokoh besar, seperti Pangeran Diponegoro, dan lain sebagainya.
Pada sejarah modern di Asia Tenggara masih mengutamakan sejarah Nasional dibandingkan dengan sejarah ilmiah. Namun dalam perkembangannya sekarang ini para sejarawan sudah mulai banyak menggun akan metode-metode dalam penulisan sejarah.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Anggar Kaswani. 1998. Metodologi Sejarah dan Historiografi. Yogyakarta: Beta offset.
Danar Widiyanto. 2002. Perkembangan Historiografi: Tinjauan Di Berbagai Wilayah Dunia. Yogyakarta: UNY
D. G. E. Hall. 1968. Sejarah Asia Tenggara. Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.
Sartono Kartodirjo. 1982. Pemikiran dan perkembangan historiografi Indonesia. Jakarta: Gramedia.
. 1985. Ilmu Sejarah dan Historiografi:Arah dan Perspekti: Gramediaf Taufik Abdullah & Abdurrachman Suryomiharjo. Jakarta
Toynbee. Arnold. 2006. Sejarah Umat Manusia: Uraian Analitis, Kronologis, Naratf dan Komparatif. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
diambil dari:http://defie88.multiply.com/journal/item/2
Jumat, 11 Februari 2011
Tourism History of the Kingdom Age
A. Tourism In Indonesia In the Age of Empire
Recreational travel during this period was limited to only certain people can enjoy recreation, among others, the King, the Nobility, and the rich. This is because at that time attractions nice place to stay away from society at that time so that society at that time rarely travel tourism, in addition to the tourist attractions are usually reserved for the relatives of the King and closed to public . Thus at the time the leisure traveler is the royal family only, while there are people very rarely do they simply travel tourism trip to the woods or place of worship close to their territory.
B. Tourism Objects In Indonesia, the Kingdom Age
Many of the kings of the past who built various facilities for purposes that are recreational as well as a place where perisrirahatan. In the 5th century AD, King Tarumanegara create a channel that is used for irrigation, transportation, and recreation. As a tourist attraction that is often visited by the king and his family, among others:
1. Taman Narmada
This park is the resting place of the royal kings who built the Garden of Bali in Lombok Island region to relieve fatigue moment of routines in the kingdom. Inside the gardens there are several tools used to entertain kings. Unlike the other parks in West Nusa Tenggara, Narmada Park was built as a place of worship and rituals of kings.
Narmada is a park that was built by King Anak Agung Gede Ngurah Karangasem, exactly in 1727 AD Some history books claim when its founding in 1805 AD The name of this park is taken from a holy river in India, the Narmada River. The park resembles Mount Rinjani and Segara Anak Lake. Perhaps, when the king was too old to perform the ritual sacrifice (pekelan) to the summit of Mount Rinjani which has a height of 3,726 meters, he ordered all the royal architect to bring the nuances of Mount Rinjani to the middle of downtown. Finally they agreed to make copies of Narmada Park. In the past, as well as a special place to worship Lord Shiva, Taman Narmada is also intended as a resting place for the king.
2. Segaran pool, located in Trowulan, near Mojokerto, East Java, which was built in the heyday of the Majapahit Kingdom, who works for the purposes of recreation, besides that it is also to supply water in the dry season.
3. Tasik Ardi in Banten Lama, which was built by Maulana Yusuf in the 16th century AD, for purposes of irrigation, drinking water supply for the palace Surosowan, and for recreational purposes.
4. Structure's history, built by Sultan Iskandar Muda, was used as a resort and relax for the queen.
5. Bleduk * Kuwu is a phenomenon of crater mud (mud Volcanoes), which already occurred long before the era of Old Mataram Kingdom (732 AD-928 AD). Kuwu Bleduk * is one of the prime attractions in the District Grobogan, in addition to the source of eternal fire Mrapen, and Reservoir Kedungombo. Etymologically, the name comes from kuwu Bleduk * Java language, namely 'Bleduk *' which means the boom / burst and 'kuwu' which is absorbed from the word 'kuwur' which means the run / blurred / scrambled.
Actually at that time was very limited tourist attractions once, so this time the powerful kingdoms built tourist attractions for the family palace sanagt rarely opened to the public. At that time, the places that are built mostly in the form of places of worship, cemeteries and parks. In addition, the kings of the days it did a lot of attractions in the form of hunting animals perjalaan Forestry conducted a few days and locations are very distant forest. In addition, many kings who travel tour by visiting the neighboring kingdom mereka.dengan use horse and buggy.
Travel tours conducted by the society at that time a religious trip, meaning the people at that time a lot of travel tours to the tombs of the family that they consider kingdom as a lord or their ancestors. In addition, they travel to places of worship that are considered sacred. And there are other tours that the traders who trade outside of their area to trade, they usually visited the kingdom, kingdom klainnya well as tourism activities by visiting the famous places in the area.
taken from the website and use google translate diterjemhkan http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2011/02/majapahit-kingdom.html
Recreational travel during this period was limited to only certain people can enjoy recreation, among others, the King, the Nobility, and the rich. This is because at that time attractions nice place to stay away from society at that time so that society at that time rarely travel tourism, in addition to the tourist attractions are usually reserved for the relatives of the King and closed to public . Thus at the time the leisure traveler is the royal family only, while there are people very rarely do they simply travel tourism trip to the woods or place of worship close to their territory.
B. Tourism Objects In Indonesia, the Kingdom Age
Many of the kings of the past who built various facilities for purposes that are recreational as well as a place where perisrirahatan. In the 5th century AD, King Tarumanegara create a channel that is used for irrigation, transportation, and recreation. As a tourist attraction that is often visited by the king and his family, among others:
1. Taman Narmada
This park is the resting place of the royal kings who built the Garden of Bali in Lombok Island region to relieve fatigue moment of routines in the kingdom. Inside the gardens there are several tools used to entertain kings. Unlike the other parks in West Nusa Tenggara, Narmada Park was built as a place of worship and rituals of kings.
Narmada is a park that was built by King Anak Agung Gede Ngurah Karangasem, exactly in 1727 AD Some history books claim when its founding in 1805 AD The name of this park is taken from a holy river in India, the Narmada River. The park resembles Mount Rinjani and Segara Anak Lake. Perhaps, when the king was too old to perform the ritual sacrifice (pekelan) to the summit of Mount Rinjani which has a height of 3,726 meters, he ordered all the royal architect to bring the nuances of Mount Rinjani to the middle of downtown. Finally they agreed to make copies of Narmada Park. In the past, as well as a special place to worship Lord Shiva, Taman Narmada is also intended as a resting place for the king.
2. Segaran pool, located in Trowulan, near Mojokerto, East Java, which was built in the heyday of the Majapahit Kingdom, who works for the purposes of recreation, besides that it is also to supply water in the dry season.
3. Tasik Ardi in Banten Lama, which was built by Maulana Yusuf in the 16th century AD, for purposes of irrigation, drinking water supply for the palace Surosowan, and for recreational purposes.
4. Structure's history, built by Sultan Iskandar Muda, was used as a resort and relax for the queen.
5. Bleduk * Kuwu is a phenomenon of crater mud (mud Volcanoes), which already occurred long before the era of Old Mataram Kingdom (732 AD-928 AD). Kuwu Bleduk * is one of the prime attractions in the District Grobogan, in addition to the source of eternal fire Mrapen, and Reservoir Kedungombo. Etymologically, the name comes from kuwu Bleduk * Java language, namely 'Bleduk *' which means the boom / burst and 'kuwu' which is absorbed from the word 'kuwur' which means the run / blurred / scrambled.
Actually at that time was very limited tourist attractions once, so this time the powerful kingdoms built tourist attractions for the family palace sanagt rarely opened to the public. At that time, the places that are built mostly in the form of places of worship, cemeteries and parks. In addition, the kings of the days it did a lot of attractions in the form of hunting animals perjalaan Forestry conducted a few days and locations are very distant forest. In addition, many kings who travel tour by visiting the neighboring kingdom mereka.dengan use horse and buggy.
Travel tours conducted by the society at that time a religious trip, meaning the people at that time a lot of travel tours to the tombs of the family that they consider kingdom as a lord or their ancestors. In addition, they travel to places of worship that are considered sacred. And there are other tours that the traders who trade outside of their area to trade, they usually visited the kingdom, kingdom klainnya well as tourism activities by visiting the famous places in the area.
taken from the website and use google translate diterjemhkan http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2011/02/majapahit-kingdom.html
Majapahit Kingdom
Kingdom of Majapahit was the name of a Hindu kingdom in East Java. The kingdom was established by Raden Wijaya in 1293. In the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (1350-1389) who was accompanied by Patih Gadjah Mada (1331-1364), Majapahit kingdom experienced its golden ages.
Panataran Temple is the largest and most important temple for Hindus in East Java, which was built in the heyday of the Majapahit Kingdom. After King was killed in the incident assault Kertanegara Jayakatwang King (King of Kediri), ended the history of the Kingdom of Singasari. Kertanegara King and other royal officials were killed in the attack. Raden Wijaya (daughter of King Kertanegara) immediately fled to Sumenep, Madura, and get protection from the Aryan Wiraraja, ruler Sumenep. King Jayakatwang highly respected Arya Wiraraja so Raden Wijaya forgiven. After obtaining a pardon from the King Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya and his followers were allowed to clear the forest Pull (now a Trowulan Village, East Java) into the village. This is where then stood the center of Majapahit Kingdom.
Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
Rat Temple, where relatives of the king of Majapahit baths. In 1293 Kublai Khan's troops from China come with a purpose to destroy the Kingdom Singasari. They do not know that Singasari been destroyed. It is used by Raden Wijava to get revenge on the King Jayakatwang.
The ruler of Majapahit
Raden Wijaya: (1309)
Jayanegara: (1309-1328)
Tribhuwanatunggaldewi: (1328-1350)
Hayam Wuruk: (1350-1389)
Wikramawardhana: (1389-1429)
Suhita: (1429-1447)
Kertawijaya: (1447-1451)
Rajasawardhana: (1451-1453)
Bhre Wengker: (1456-1466)
Singhawikramawardhana: (1466-1468)
Kertabhumi: (1468-1478)
Ranawijaya / Girindrawardhana: (1478 -?)
Raden Wijaya forces in cooperation with Kublai Khan, who number about 20,000 people. In a short time, the kingdom of Kediri destroyed and King Jayakatwang killed. Kublai Khan's forces back to the harbor, but on the way, Raden Wijaya troops with the help of Sumatra Singasari troops attacked the troops. Kublai Khan's troops to get out of the land of Java and Raden Wijaya became king with the title Kertarajasa Jayawardhana.
Regional Power
Majapahit's territory covers the entire Java (except for land Sunda), most P. Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and eastern Indonesia to Irian Jaya. Territorial expansion was achieved thanks to the expansion of politics conducted by Gadjah Mada Patih Mangkubumi. During this period the kingdom of Majapahit reached top glory.
The collapse of Majapahit
After the death of Raden Wijaya, the Kingdom of Majapahit hit several rebellions. The rebellion among others is to insurgency Ranggalawe, Sora, and during the reign Jayanegara Kuti (1309-1328), and the rebellion Sadeng and Keta in the Tribhuwanatunggadewi (1328-1350). New uprising to end the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (1350-1389). After the reign of King Hayam Wuruk, declining prestige of the Kingdom of Majapahit. In 1522, the Kingdom of Majapahit devastated by civil war. In addition, factors that also affect the collapse of the Majapahit Kingdom was the emergence of the kingdom of Malacca and the development of Islamic culture.
taken from the website and use google translate diterjemhkan http://www.batan.go.id/ ~ msmunir / sejarah_kediri / majapahit.html
Panataran Temple is the largest and most important temple for Hindus in East Java, which was built in the heyday of the Majapahit Kingdom. After King was killed in the incident assault Kertanegara Jayakatwang King (King of Kediri), ended the history of the Kingdom of Singasari. Kertanegara King and other royal officials were killed in the attack. Raden Wijaya (daughter of King Kertanegara) immediately fled to Sumenep, Madura, and get protection from the Aryan Wiraraja, ruler Sumenep. King Jayakatwang highly respected Arya Wiraraja so Raden Wijaya forgiven. After obtaining a pardon from the King Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya and his followers were allowed to clear the forest Pull (now a Trowulan Village, East Java) into the village. This is where then stood the center of Majapahit Kingdom.
Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
Rat Temple, where relatives of the king of Majapahit baths. In 1293 Kublai Khan's troops from China come with a purpose to destroy the Kingdom Singasari. They do not know that Singasari been destroyed. It is used by Raden Wijava to get revenge on the King Jayakatwang.
The ruler of Majapahit
Raden Wijaya: (1309)
Jayanegara: (1309-1328)
Tribhuwanatunggaldewi: (1328-1350)
Hayam Wuruk: (1350-1389)
Wikramawardhana: (1389-1429)
Suhita: (1429-1447)
Kertawijaya: (1447-1451)
Rajasawardhana: (1451-1453)
Bhre Wengker: (1456-1466)
Singhawikramawardhana: (1466-1468)
Kertabhumi: (1468-1478)
Ranawijaya / Girindrawardhana: (1478 -?)
Raden Wijaya forces in cooperation with Kublai Khan, who number about 20,000 people. In a short time, the kingdom of Kediri destroyed and King Jayakatwang killed. Kublai Khan's forces back to the harbor, but on the way, Raden Wijaya troops with the help of Sumatra Singasari troops attacked the troops. Kublai Khan's troops to get out of the land of Java and Raden Wijaya became king with the title Kertarajasa Jayawardhana.
Regional Power
Majapahit's territory covers the entire Java (except for land Sunda), most P. Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and eastern Indonesia to Irian Jaya. Territorial expansion was achieved thanks to the expansion of politics conducted by Gadjah Mada Patih Mangkubumi. During this period the kingdom of Majapahit reached top glory.
The collapse of Majapahit
After the death of Raden Wijaya, the Kingdom of Majapahit hit several rebellions. The rebellion among others is to insurgency Ranggalawe, Sora, and during the reign Jayanegara Kuti (1309-1328), and the rebellion Sadeng and Keta in the Tribhuwanatunggadewi (1328-1350). New uprising to end the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (1350-1389). After the reign of King Hayam Wuruk, declining prestige of the Kingdom of Majapahit. In 1522, the Kingdom of Majapahit devastated by civil war. In addition, factors that also affect the collapse of the Majapahit Kingdom was the emergence of the kingdom of Malacca and the development of Islamic culture.
taken from the website and use google translate diterjemhkan http://www.batan.go.id/ ~ msmunir / sejarah_kediri / majapahit.html
thailand 1932 revolution
A. The causes of formation of the Constitutional Monarchy in Thailand
During the leadership of King Vajiravudh in 1910 experienced turmoil during kepemimipinannya. King Vajiravudh adalahpengganti from King Chulanglongkor. In his leadership of King Vajiravudh made a big mistake not to continue the modernization efforts that have been pioneered by his father. In taking the decision of King Vajiravudh not ask the advice of his family members are important, as was done by his father. He also raised the people who liked to sit in key positions, giving rise to jealousy. He has a goal to revive the absolutism that is already reduced in the leadership of King Mongkut. In 1921 he commanded and imposed compulsory education at primary school level. He also founded and established Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok Vajiravudh school students consisted of young boys who diasramakan. In the socio-economic field of King Vajiravudh in 1916 he ordered his people to use his family name, then told the woman also told to use the model european hair and skirt as a model dressing native Thailand.
During the reign of King Vajiravudh perform contradictory actions in which he allowed the ongoing practice of budget waste of funds, corruption, business royal absolutism, and the suppression of the advisory board. In 1925 King Vajiravudh dies and is succeeded by his younger brother Prince Prajadhipok. Prajadhipokmengambil policies for reduction of employees who initially 3000 to 300 people. In addition, military personnel and also burdened with the pay cuts. Kebijaikan was coupled with some increase in excise as a result of trade agreements and the prosperity of foreign trade, allowing offset budged and also raise taxes. He re-established Advisory Board consisting of five important prince as a advisory body and he founded the cabinet of ministers. In 1927 he formed a committee comprising 40 people to report to him any problems posed.
Policies that have been taken to bring results. The amount of revenue derived from customs sector makes pemasukannegara grow and make the state treasurer is able to balance the budget without the need for debt relief from other States or abroad. But the one sisitindakan Prajadhipok with development policy reduction of employees' salaries and a massive upset and feel devastated, especially since the enactment of the young officer's discretion. In the field of trade still largely held by foreigners, especially Chinese. Thus the economic situation remains critical and the number of unemployed has increased.
B. Reform of 1932 in Thailand
In October 1931 a debate between the highest council in Thailand, the debate involving the Minister of War, Prince Bavaradev, and trade minister and Prince Purachatra. The debate about economic issues. And it resulted piolitik domestic crisis that reduces the confidence of the people against the king or the government.
The entry of science western governments, especially about new ideas that have been wafted by the young Thai is a factor that accelerates the emergence of the revolution. Thai people from both groups of intellectuals and military officers that were revolutionary and western-educated aspiring to abolish the absolute monarchy into constitutional monarchy.
Intellectual faction led by Pridi Banomnyong. While the military group led by Phibun Songgram. Both these men who later took part in achieving democratization in Thailand. Thus then arise a new elite that demands change and greater political power established itself as an opposition against the monarchy absolute. Dissatisfaction among western-educated revolutionaries, elite bureaucracy in government and leadership of armed forces of the younger rising. So, with military support Pridi meolancarkan bloodless revolution on June 24, 1932.
Revolution in 1932 took place with the lancer and succeeded in forcing the king accepted the constitution proposed by the People's Party (party Pridi Banomyong and his friends). The contents of the constitution in question is to eliminate the rights pregorative King, except the right to give forgiveness. Besides, it is determined that full sovereignty is in the hands of the people, the government arranged with the institutions of state which includes King, cabinet and parliament. Besides the main content of the constitution of 1932 is as follows
1. King has the right to appoint half the members of parliament, amounting to 156 people and the other half elected by the people.
2. Cabinet headed by a prime minister chosen by parliament and responsible to him, later on officially adopted by the king.
3. King entitled to dissolve parliament and for that he must carry out the election, no later than three months afterwards.
4. King may veto parliamentary decisions and the right to declare state of emergency.
As a result of the 1932 revolution, the power is removed and shaped the Constitution and parliament. The revolution launched by the revolutionary group in Thailand was indeed to subvert the power of absolute monarchy. Phyamanomakon become prime minister. In his reign Pridi banomyong proposed economic plan contains about the nationalization of all land, then Prime Minister Manomakon as communists and discard Pridi abroad. Prime Minister Manomakon also cleans the armed forces of the radical elements. And suddenly a coup in 1933 conducted by PhyaBahol and managed to subvert Manomakon Phya. After Phahon become leaders between the years 1933-1938 he was considered undemocratic and assessed a new authoritarian powers.
In 1938 the cabinet fell and was replaced Phibun Songhram. During pemerintahanPhibun Songhram and Pridi as finance minister, the actions of government are more nationalist, like the successful opening of employment opportunities, memberbaiki government. After World War II Phibun be moderate and anti-communist law in 1974 he was waived. With the way that Thailand received support from the Soviet Union and became a UN member in 1948. After a clash with big countries and the United Nations then the ideals become a democratic state come true.
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/revolusi-thailand-1932.html
During the leadership of King Vajiravudh in 1910 experienced turmoil during kepemimipinannya. King Vajiravudh adalahpengganti from King Chulanglongkor. In his leadership of King Vajiravudh made a big mistake not to continue the modernization efforts that have been pioneered by his father. In taking the decision of King Vajiravudh not ask the advice of his family members are important, as was done by his father. He also raised the people who liked to sit in key positions, giving rise to jealousy. He has a goal to revive the absolutism that is already reduced in the leadership of King Mongkut. In 1921 he commanded and imposed compulsory education at primary school level. He also founded and established Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok Vajiravudh school students consisted of young boys who diasramakan. In the socio-economic field of King Vajiravudh in 1916 he ordered his people to use his family name, then told the woman also told to use the model european hair and skirt as a model dressing native Thailand.
During the reign of King Vajiravudh perform contradictory actions in which he allowed the ongoing practice of budget waste of funds, corruption, business royal absolutism, and the suppression of the advisory board. In 1925 King Vajiravudh dies and is succeeded by his younger brother Prince Prajadhipok. Prajadhipokmengambil policies for reduction of employees who initially 3000 to 300 people. In addition, military personnel and also burdened with the pay cuts. Kebijaikan was coupled with some increase in excise as a result of trade agreements and the prosperity of foreign trade, allowing offset budged and also raise taxes. He re-established Advisory Board consisting of five important prince as a advisory body and he founded the cabinet of ministers. In 1927 he formed a committee comprising 40 people to report to him any problems posed.
Policies that have been taken to bring results. The amount of revenue derived from customs sector makes pemasukannegara grow and make the state treasurer is able to balance the budget without the need for debt relief from other States or abroad. But the one sisitindakan Prajadhipok with development policy reduction of employees' salaries and a massive upset and feel devastated, especially since the enactment of the young officer's discretion. In the field of trade still largely held by foreigners, especially Chinese. Thus the economic situation remains critical and the number of unemployed has increased.
B. Reform of 1932 in Thailand
In October 1931 a debate between the highest council in Thailand, the debate involving the Minister of War, Prince Bavaradev, and trade minister and Prince Purachatra. The debate about economic issues. And it resulted piolitik domestic crisis that reduces the confidence of the people against the king or the government.
The entry of science western governments, especially about new ideas that have been wafted by the young Thai is a factor that accelerates the emergence of the revolution. Thai people from both groups of intellectuals and military officers that were revolutionary and western-educated aspiring to abolish the absolute monarchy into constitutional monarchy.
Intellectual faction led by Pridi Banomnyong. While the military group led by Phibun Songgram. Both these men who later took part in achieving democratization in Thailand. Thus then arise a new elite that demands change and greater political power established itself as an opposition against the monarchy absolute. Dissatisfaction among western-educated revolutionaries, elite bureaucracy in government and leadership of armed forces of the younger rising. So, with military support Pridi meolancarkan bloodless revolution on June 24, 1932.
Revolution in 1932 took place with the lancer and succeeded in forcing the king accepted the constitution proposed by the People's Party (party Pridi Banomyong and his friends). The contents of the constitution in question is to eliminate the rights pregorative King, except the right to give forgiveness. Besides, it is determined that full sovereignty is in the hands of the people, the government arranged with the institutions of state which includes King, cabinet and parliament. Besides the main content of the constitution of 1932 is as follows
1. King has the right to appoint half the members of parliament, amounting to 156 people and the other half elected by the people.
2. Cabinet headed by a prime minister chosen by parliament and responsible to him, later on officially adopted by the king.
3. King entitled to dissolve parliament and for that he must carry out the election, no later than three months afterwards.
4. King may veto parliamentary decisions and the right to declare state of emergency.
As a result of the 1932 revolution, the power is removed and shaped the Constitution and parliament. The revolution launched by the revolutionary group in Thailand was indeed to subvert the power of absolute monarchy. Phyamanomakon become prime minister. In his reign Pridi banomyong proposed economic plan contains about the nationalization of all land, then Prime Minister Manomakon as communists and discard Pridi abroad. Prime Minister Manomakon also cleans the armed forces of the radical elements. And suddenly a coup in 1933 conducted by PhyaBahol and managed to subvert Manomakon Phya. After Phahon become leaders between the years 1933-1938 he was considered undemocratic and assessed a new authoritarian powers.
In 1938 the cabinet fell and was replaced Phibun Songhram. During pemerintahanPhibun Songhram and Pridi as finance minister, the actions of government are more nationalist, like the successful opening of employment opportunities, memberbaiki government. After World War II Phibun be moderate and anti-communist law in 1974 he was waived. With the way that Thailand received support from the Soviet Union and became a UN member in 1948. After a clash with big countries and the United Nations then the ideals become a democratic state come true.
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/revolusi-thailand-1932.html
Cory appearance As President of the Philippines
Since the original constitution of 1973 was filled with controversy, namely since the creation of the Constitutional Assembly from 1971 to 1972. ratification of a new constitution which allegedly took place in a way that the Constitution melaggar caused opposition among many who assess the power tidah Marcoz is legitimate. 1973 Constitution also assessed keotoriteran ratify the constitutional aspects of the most unbiased accepted.
On April 23, 1986, Aquino issued Corazo Makhlumat No. 9 of 1986 which regulates the appointment and terms - the operational aspects of a body charged with drafting a new constitution. During that interim government affairs handled by the State Constitution cornerstone of liberation, even though one party gives a full and absolute authority to the president, but on the other hand maintaining Bill Of Rights contained in the constitution of 1973, as an obstacle to the implementation of security and power in a dictatorial and repressive as well as source of authority of the people to demand accountability. One of the priority of constitutional reform is the introduction of a stable turnover mechanism, detailed and reliable so as not to provide an opportunity for doubt - doubt. [1]
Renewal of the constitution should also be directed at the need for a balance between authority and responsibility in the post-Marcos. The first stage is to reduce kesumurangan position of president. That means more than just disarm the power of the President to issue decrees. Realignment of power among the branches - the branches of government in the Philippines seems likely also will give greater priority to the recovery position independent of the judiciary. An independent judiciary is also required for it is possible to determine the condition of how the authority can legitimately be applied according to the constitution which was also in the future.
A clearer separation between the executive and legislature in the government would also end the uncertainty bias system of government in the Philippines, which has a mix of systems and perlementer presindential. President Aquino and Vice President Laurel begin term of office in February 1986 with a commitment to restore the system of checks and balances created by the separation - pisahkannya position of power.
The revival of political parties in 1978 after sinking almost six years, allowing groups - opposition groups in the Philippines to have an influence on political life. Party - a moderate opposition parties joined in a united front to participate in elections in February 1986, but even then with difficulty. Finally create a working spouse sam Corazo Aquino - Laurel, although the bias was only achieved after Cardinal Sin personally intervene. Aquino Corazo typically has taken the position that includes the attitudes of most of his advisers. He said that national reconciliation is a priority for him the most important. He also said he would deal with the energies - economic, social, and politics that has led to young people taking up arms against the Marcos Philippines.
Achieving a dramatic Corazo Aquino presidency to the stairs at the end of February 1986 does not guarantee the return of peace and prosperity for the State of the Philippines, but this has marked the beginning of a fresh observation for various conditions. Task or job reordering is very heavy. Various government agencies have been systematically misused by the Marcos regime that they all depend on Marcos, which overall seems like not having the right power. The national economy has been weakened by the incorrect allocation of resources - the source for many - years, has been in a state of severe depression, widespread unemployment and income - average has dropped back into a position that occurred in previous decades. [2]
The mass media are important for the mobilization of people power. At the beginning of the Aquino administration, also devoted much attention to the role of the corps of lawyers in the political system has undergone reorganization. However, not all lawyers discouraged. At least some of them never give up in order to defend political prisoners. While others devoted themselves to the effort to defend the rights - rights groups can not afford. People - people like that are rare. But they had a role to fellow citizens of the Philippines shows that the profession so lawyers do not fall so it can not be saved again. The position of the Aquino government created thanks to the various developments. But there are two elements that most define the personal Corazo Aquino and the support of the people against him. It is very important is that Corazo Aquino need to develop a way - a way to continue communication with a base of supporters. In addition to the vast popular support, President Aquino also has other capital, ie own personality.
Corazo Aquino presidency has been initiated by applying barbagai specific steps or actions to overcome the problem - the problem. He announced a revolutionary government, dissolve the Constitution-making body - which is dominated Marcos Act, replacing the people who raised large amounts of Marcos in the post - the post or office of the executive and the judiciary and establish a commission or committee compiler Constitution - Basic Law or constitution which provide or ensure comprehensive persetujusn in a national referendum. [3]
Fixed persistence of Corazo Aquino as president of the supreme importance of this mean to carp a democratic future. It's not just because of its commitment to the restoration of democratic life in the way of peace, but also by considering the high level of credibility it has, and the amount of public confidence in him.
[1]Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.237
[2] Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.338
[3] Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.338
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/tampilnya-cory-sebagai-presiden.html
On April 23, 1986, Aquino issued Corazo Makhlumat No. 9 of 1986 which regulates the appointment and terms - the operational aspects of a body charged with drafting a new constitution. During that interim government affairs handled by the State Constitution cornerstone of liberation, even though one party gives a full and absolute authority to the president, but on the other hand maintaining Bill Of Rights contained in the constitution of 1973, as an obstacle to the implementation of security and power in a dictatorial and repressive as well as source of authority of the people to demand accountability. One of the priority of constitutional reform is the introduction of a stable turnover mechanism, detailed and reliable so as not to provide an opportunity for doubt - doubt. [1]
Renewal of the constitution should also be directed at the need for a balance between authority and responsibility in the post-Marcos. The first stage is to reduce kesumurangan position of president. That means more than just disarm the power of the President to issue decrees. Realignment of power among the branches - the branches of government in the Philippines seems likely also will give greater priority to the recovery position independent of the judiciary. An independent judiciary is also required for it is possible to determine the condition of how the authority can legitimately be applied according to the constitution which was also in the future.
A clearer separation between the executive and legislature in the government would also end the uncertainty bias system of government in the Philippines, which has a mix of systems and perlementer presindential. President Aquino and Vice President Laurel begin term of office in February 1986 with a commitment to restore the system of checks and balances created by the separation - pisahkannya position of power.
The revival of political parties in 1978 after sinking almost six years, allowing groups - opposition groups in the Philippines to have an influence on political life. Party - a moderate opposition parties joined in a united front to participate in elections in February 1986, but even then with difficulty. Finally create a working spouse sam Corazo Aquino - Laurel, although the bias was only achieved after Cardinal Sin personally intervene. Aquino Corazo typically has taken the position that includes the attitudes of most of his advisers. He said that national reconciliation is a priority for him the most important. He also said he would deal with the energies - economic, social, and politics that has led to young people taking up arms against the Marcos Philippines.
Achieving a dramatic Corazo Aquino presidency to the stairs at the end of February 1986 does not guarantee the return of peace and prosperity for the State of the Philippines, but this has marked the beginning of a fresh observation for various conditions. Task or job reordering is very heavy. Various government agencies have been systematically misused by the Marcos regime that they all depend on Marcos, which overall seems like not having the right power. The national economy has been weakened by the incorrect allocation of resources - the source for many - years, has been in a state of severe depression, widespread unemployment and income - average has dropped back into a position that occurred in previous decades. [2]
The mass media are important for the mobilization of people power. At the beginning of the Aquino administration, also devoted much attention to the role of the corps of lawyers in the political system has undergone reorganization. However, not all lawyers discouraged. At least some of them never give up in order to defend political prisoners. While others devoted themselves to the effort to defend the rights - rights groups can not afford. People - people like that are rare. But they had a role to fellow citizens of the Philippines shows that the profession so lawyers do not fall so it can not be saved again. The position of the Aquino government created thanks to the various developments. But there are two elements that most define the personal Corazo Aquino and the support of the people against him. It is very important is that Corazo Aquino need to develop a way - a way to continue communication with a base of supporters. In addition to the vast popular support, President Aquino also has other capital, ie own personality.
Corazo Aquino presidency has been initiated by applying barbagai specific steps or actions to overcome the problem - the problem. He announced a revolutionary government, dissolve the Constitution-making body - which is dominated Marcos Act, replacing the people who raised large amounts of Marcos in the post - the post or office of the executive and the judiciary and establish a commission or committee compiler Constitution - Basic Law or constitution which provide or ensure comprehensive persetujusn in a national referendum. [3]
Fixed persistence of Corazo Aquino as president of the supreme importance of this mean to carp a democratic future. It's not just because of its commitment to the restoration of democratic life in the way of peace, but also by considering the high level of credibility it has, and the amount of public confidence in him.
[1]Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.237
[2] Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.338
[3] Bresnan, John.1988. Krisi Filipina.Jakarta : Gramedia, hlm.338
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/tampilnya-cory-sebagai-presiden.html
Kingdom Angkor
BEGINNING OF THE ANGKOR KINGDOM
A. Origin ANGKOR KINGDOM
Since there is no written legacy, it is predicted Angkor Khmer born from within its own environment, not because of Tchen-la occupied militarily. From sudutsejarah, Angkor founding factors known to have come from outside the influence of the archipelago.
1. Sriwijaya and Sailendra Dynasty
By Sriwijaya has trade hegemony as Fu-nan and can replace it and thanks to it, can master the seas south, perhaps because it is Tchen-la forced to leave power over the sea. Starting the second quarter century AD-8 power switch to Central Java where developing a strong dynasty dynasty.
Kings Sailendra considers himself a direct descendant of the kings of Fu-nan, who took refuge in Java after their country was conquered by Tchen-la. They earned the nickname "King of the Mountain" and use the title Maharaja, because it considers itself as a world conqueror. They dropped one of the last king of the kingdom Tchen-la that was fading. In the city that they have some sort of power, as recognized by the people themselves at the time of establishment of Khmer Angkor.
2. Civilization Expansion Java
Sailendra times brilliant Buddhist art, it reflects the development of Mahayana Buddhism which began in the Pala dynasty in India, and spread by people of Java and Sumatra. Art that appeared in the Malay Peninsula in the form of a statue of Srivijaya style. By the mid-8th century AD, there are two remarkable torso Awalokiteswara good as that found in Chaiya. These works, though showing the influence of Javanese art, art shows also the influence of a clear head at all. Most likely these statues are known by the artists of the first Angkor. Rite Sailendra royal and traditional Hindu elements hidden in East Java, the title "King of the Mountain", worship the kings who have died and the worship of the phallus as a symbol of power, all it is one of the origins of the institutions of the kingdom of Angkor .
B. KING OF THE BEGINNING OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
1. JAYAVARMAN II
The effect is directly experienced by Jayavarman II, who had lived in Java. King's has a somewhat distant family ties with Cambodia dynasties earlier. He lived in the palace Sailendra dynasty, he returned to Cambodia by the year 790 AD
The new king began to unite the Tchen-la fragmented. Stages of conquest took the form of capital which he founded: the early Indrapura, on the east side and headed for Kompong Cham provinces north of the lake-funds, which will become the center of power. In the year 802 AD, he built Mahendraparvata, in Phnom Ku-len, about 30 km to the sea timir Angkor.
The place was chosen with special consideration. Basically the area unsuitable for habitation, and will quickly be abandoned, it is symbolic for he became "King of the Mountain" and the universal ruler, Jayawarman II has chosen just a mountain like Mount Meru, where dwell the gods around Indra, the king them. In particular, he brings a Brahmin priest to read the sacred texts and build phallus god glory. The phallus, is a source of power and soul of the king's residence, later became the symbol of the Khmer Empire. With these actions make kambuja no longer depend on Java and lived only a universal ruler. After that Jayavarman II remains in Roluos and died there in 850 AD replace his son Jayavarman III and settled there until the year 877 AD
It turns out that Jayavarman II was the founder of Angkor's power, and not only in terms of politics alone, but also in terms of Religious. Jayavarman II government reinforced by the government of his son, has changed the course of evolution altogether Khmer Empire. The country was again united under a single authority, that is strong, and unmatched.
2. INDRAVARMAN
Substitute the two founders of Angkor Indravarman (877-889 AD) contributed to fostering a solid foundation for Ankor power, both in politics and social and economic. Recognized authority to Cochin-China, to the U-Bon in the Siamese, maybe even into Champa. As a strong adherent of the teachings of Shiva, he is trying to develop the cult of the king who had died, which started by Jayawarman II, which may be above the influence of Java.
3. YASOVARMAN
Yasovarman, Indravarman son replace him in 889M. From his mother, he is a descendant of the royal family of Fu-nan which old Palin. His teacher a Brahmin, a member of the family priest who was assigned to take care of Jayavarman II, the royal phallus worship. As the son Indravarman, and universal heir of the kings of Fu-nan, and followers of the ideas of Jayavarman II, in his collected all the advantages that have led to the birth of Angkor.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
A. KHMER hegemony
1. KOH Ker
Harshavarman I, Yasovarman siblings, substituting in the year 900 AD and ruled until around the year 921 AD Since the year 921 AD, Jayavarman IV uncle, rebelled and built a new capital at Koh Ker Chok Gargyar now about 70 sea miles east of Angkor.
Like his predecessors, Jayavarman IV was an admirer of Shiva. In the capital city which he built a new sacred phallus, a repetition of the action Jayavarman II who built Angkor, perhaps with the same goal which is celebrating its success seize kekeuasaan. He died in 941 AD and his son still reigned in the Koh Ker know till 941 AD
2. BACK TO ANGKOR
Rajendravarman (944-968 AD), the nephew of the usurper and also Yasovarman, back to the city as soon as he ascended the throne. Return it is more meaningful because the new king, according to matrilineal descent, is at the center of the former ruling prince Tchen-la's. With the choice that marked the breakup with soil origin and displacement of people kambuja permanently into lowland Khmer people and the ruler over the whole of southern Indochina. To atone for his departure, according to the tradition of Indravarman era, when just arrived back at Angkor, the temple dedicated rajendravarman Mebon (years 974-952 AD) to the ancestors of the royal family.
In politics, rajendravarman kekeuasaannya expand into Champa and served until the year 945-956 AD, his troops ransacked the Po Nagar in Nha-light. His son Jayavarman V replaced in the year 968 AD and ruled till 1001 AD He continued his father's politics, especially strengthening the Khmer rule over the territory of Champa.
3. SURYA DYNASTY (oversized solar)
The years pertamaabad to-11 AD, a new dynasty took power. Suryavarman I, descendant of "The Solar" from kambuja, apparently conquered Angkor kekuasaanyang usurper by force of arms. After defeating the two successor Jayavarman V's reign was not long, he settled in the capital by the year 1011 AD
Suryavarman I have Khmer properties similar to their predecessors. The only significant change in his administration is opening the door as wide of Buddhist religion. The king's personal religious cult of Shiva and continue the already applied king of kings his predecessors. Suryavarman I reigned until 1050 AD For the Khmer empire he had annexed the whole of southern Siam, from Lopburu samapi Ligor, and probably most of southern Laos, probably extends to Luang Prabang.
His son, Udayadityavarman II, to replace them and live up to in 1066 AD Although his reign was short, and always dirusuhkan by rebels in all provinces vast empire, he still had time to expand his power and may have peak power at the highest ever achieved by a Khmer king.
Udayadityavarman II adlah religious believers to practice their religion secaraa Siwayang tight, although he was inclined to worship wisnu. Even during his reign marked a kind of anti-Buddhist reaction, but does not eliminate the persistent belief berkembeng in Cambodia since the 11th century AD
Her youngest sister in 1066 to replace the AD and ruled under the name Harshavarman II, samapai by the year 1080 AD He was forced to deal with those attacks have been memerdekan Chamyang ourselves and even managed to burn the ancient town of Sambor unhampered IBI Kuk, after collecting a lucrative booty. Under his rule, the rule of Surya dynasty rapidly declined. After memeribntah for less than a century, the dynasty must be surrendered to a new dynasty.
B. SHADOW OF ANGKOR Indochina
1. Champa
Towards the end of the 9th century AD, a new dynasty to rule in Champa, with its capital Indrapura, which is now named Quang-Nam. Its founder is Indravarman II (875-before the year 898 AD), a devout Buddhists. Under his rule and his successors, after a war during the previous century, established peaceful relations with the archipelago.
King Indravarman III (by the year 918-960 AD) was forced mengusirserangan Khmer-attack and maybe how to confront it, he is very keen to send utuysan-envoy to China. But Angkor is quite dominant influence under his rule. Meanwhile, a far greater danger began to press Campa. After becoming independent, Annam took over the expansion of political and glanced at the fertile lowlands and the cities are prosperous Champa. Since the end of the 10th century AD began the war between the fatal and difficult to reconcile these two forces, because the terms of the country's survival is at stake. In the year 982 AD the Vietnamese seized Indrapura.
Cham people are scattered, regrouped under a new seorangraja, Harivarman II (988-998 AD), which puts more capital to the south, in Vijaya (Binh-Dinh). Vietnam pressures will never slack again, the opposite occurs nearly every year-invasion assault, till the Vijaya who were taken away in the year 1044 AD and destroyed in the year 1069 AD thus the country of Champa lost territory to the north, because at the same time he must face new attacks Khmer people.
Harivarman IV (1070-1080 AD) untuyk temporary halt evacuations unremitting, he also succeeded in a lightning attack into Cambodia. He restore peace and glory to his country. Substitute-pengantinya: Jaya Indravarman II (1081-1113 AD), Harivarman V (1113-1139 AD), and Jaya Indravarman III (1139-1145 AD), may be regarded as secure and govern in a state of calm, before the dynasty and the country fell on year 1145 AD into the hands of Khmer troops.
2. SIAM
At the beginning of the 11th century AD, delta conjoined becoming an integral part of the world Angkor, Angkor can be seen from the greatest king Suryavarman I, the original Prince Ligor. Although influenced Khmer Empire, the former did not leave the country Dvaravati Buddhism, he even menjadipusat Hinayana Buddhism the most orthodox. In the same period, the Mon and Pyu of the Irrawaddy delta, united by the king Anorata (1044-1077 AD), the king is what makes their country so pemeluik Buddhism. With reinforced by Burmese who also has embraced it and through the country by continuing contacts with Sri Lanka, the doctrine is slowly spreading to the east. With the conquest, the kings of Angkor are berajaran Shiva integrate into the country's religious center that undermine their power, although not as direct causes.
3. VIETNAM
Served until the 10th century AD, the delta of Tonkin tal more than a colony of China. During the colonial period that lasted more than a thousand years, the Vietnamese colonialist culture to absorb, so it will be lasting forever.
By leveraging the power slump overlord overlord-Tang dynasty, a local dynasty seized power in 938 AD Of course Annam continued to recognize the authority that only the name alone of the Chinese Emperor, asking for support if necessary and continue using Chinese characters, as well as law and culture. When the Vietnamese people began to feel tightness in their delta, because it is only capable of working on the lowlands, only the targeted land is located to the south of Campa.
Le Vietnamese dynasties beginning (years 980-1009 AD), and Ly (1010-1225 AD), little by little to expand their power, to destroy altogether Campa. But the expansion of power throughout southern pesisr done with violence only produces a population growth rather than kejayaaan a civilization. The Vietnamese got the victory because of their numbers. Although they still use bagab Chinese administration, but quite loose, Vietnam became a unified nation thanks to its geography than that unites mind. This nation is composed of identical basic elements that bertdsampingan but relatifberdiri own, as each tried to survive on its own.
C. Heyday ANGKOR KINGDOM
Destruction of Angkor by the Cham is the fatal blow to the Hindu tradition, which until then had been enrich Khmer civilization. The event is actually possible to also mark the end of Cambodia itself. Along with that civilization developed and to reach crystallization in Angkor stalemate. He was no longer able to renew itself, developed as much as possible is just the themes that's all.
This is reinforced by the rapid advancement of Buddhism throughout the 12th century AD, based upon the number of statues of the Wise multiply. The fact that is more meaningful: a king of Angkor, Dharanindravarman II, officially embraced Buddhism. After that victory Cham regarded as supra-natural disaster, the signal from the sky: the end of an institution so digembor-heralded, because as if created by the gods themselves and unshakable.
1. JAYAVARMAN VII
This is the figure who suspended the fate of a fatal blow by placing his country under the banner of Buddhism. He was a figure who memepesonakan, and the most prominent in the history of Khmer. Jayavarman VII was king of the most arrogant and hungry for victory among all the Khmer kings who ditonjolkannya are actions.
He ascended the throne in indirect replace his father, this is when his father died, he was berperangdi Champa and did not get to sue haknya.dia not do anything when Yasovarman II ascended the throne even when Angkor was taken by Tribhuvanadityavarman. He has spent all alone in that period with Preah Khan, Kompong Svay.
After suffering from leprosy, and healed thanks to miracles. He then returned to the stage of political and religious. When the Cham invasion which made him act. After a series of devastating wars, including battles in the lakes, he expelled the destroyer of Angkor, and in 1811 AD he took the throne. In the age of more than sixty years old and burnt the capital, he took revenge by the gruesome way. He invaded Champa, Vijaya annex. Previously he had been guaranteed Annam be neutral. But once she succeeded, pasukannyaditamabh with troops of Champa, Siam, Burma, invaded Annam. In the north west it is more forward again limit his kingdom down to Vientiane, to Burma, south to the Malay Peninsula.
But behind kesuksessannya in beragamanya aspect, that his activity was almost delirious, and he was an adherent of Mahayana Buddhism. Under the banner of a rather conventional Buddhist Jayavarman did not leave the cult of the king, the god of the earth. Apparently he did not change the underlying ritual Hindu kingdom of Angkor.
D. Setbacks AND END OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
After Jayavarman VII, the king of Angkor no longer noteworthy. Capital city is still there and his appearance has not changed. Chinese texts, Tcheu Takuan, the famous traveler who visited Cambodia in 1295 AD was described as the city's wealthiest, most powerful king in southern seas. Until 1430, the Khmer kings still reign at Angkor.
Other causes in the economic field this kingdom was in danger. Angkor's hydraulic system owned maintenance and development needs are not met for the mud and traffic jams. With the weakening of royal power, the more toward economic collapse because only the king who is able mengelolo this giant network. Inevitably agriculture at Angkor semakinmenurun and result in a decrease in the population. In addition, malaria epidemics follow exacerbating the fall of Angkor.
Loss of Angkor accelerated by the Thai invasion bertubui insistently and destructive. After the cities of Angkor can be captured by their enemies and then the stolen wealth and burned. So people leave Angkor Cambodia.
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/kerajaan-angkor.html
A. Origin ANGKOR KINGDOM
Since there is no written legacy, it is predicted Angkor Khmer born from within its own environment, not because of Tchen-la occupied militarily. From sudutsejarah, Angkor founding factors known to have come from outside the influence of the archipelago.
1. Sriwijaya and Sailendra Dynasty
By Sriwijaya has trade hegemony as Fu-nan and can replace it and thanks to it, can master the seas south, perhaps because it is Tchen-la forced to leave power over the sea. Starting the second quarter century AD-8 power switch to Central Java where developing a strong dynasty dynasty.
Kings Sailendra considers himself a direct descendant of the kings of Fu-nan, who took refuge in Java after their country was conquered by Tchen-la. They earned the nickname "King of the Mountain" and use the title Maharaja, because it considers itself as a world conqueror. They dropped one of the last king of the kingdom Tchen-la that was fading. In the city that they have some sort of power, as recognized by the people themselves at the time of establishment of Khmer Angkor.
2. Civilization Expansion Java
Sailendra times brilliant Buddhist art, it reflects the development of Mahayana Buddhism which began in the Pala dynasty in India, and spread by people of Java and Sumatra. Art that appeared in the Malay Peninsula in the form of a statue of Srivijaya style. By the mid-8th century AD, there are two remarkable torso Awalokiteswara good as that found in Chaiya. These works, though showing the influence of Javanese art, art shows also the influence of a clear head at all. Most likely these statues are known by the artists of the first Angkor. Rite Sailendra royal and traditional Hindu elements hidden in East Java, the title "King of the Mountain", worship the kings who have died and the worship of the phallus as a symbol of power, all it is one of the origins of the institutions of the kingdom of Angkor .
B. KING OF THE BEGINNING OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
1. JAYAVARMAN II
The effect is directly experienced by Jayavarman II, who had lived in Java. King's has a somewhat distant family ties with Cambodia dynasties earlier. He lived in the palace Sailendra dynasty, he returned to Cambodia by the year 790 AD
The new king began to unite the Tchen-la fragmented. Stages of conquest took the form of capital which he founded: the early Indrapura, on the east side and headed for Kompong Cham provinces north of the lake-funds, which will become the center of power. In the year 802 AD, he built Mahendraparvata, in Phnom Ku-len, about 30 km to the sea timir Angkor.
The place was chosen with special consideration. Basically the area unsuitable for habitation, and will quickly be abandoned, it is symbolic for he became "King of the Mountain" and the universal ruler, Jayawarman II has chosen just a mountain like Mount Meru, where dwell the gods around Indra, the king them. In particular, he brings a Brahmin priest to read the sacred texts and build phallus god glory. The phallus, is a source of power and soul of the king's residence, later became the symbol of the Khmer Empire. With these actions make kambuja no longer depend on Java and lived only a universal ruler. After that Jayavarman II remains in Roluos and died there in 850 AD replace his son Jayavarman III and settled there until the year 877 AD
It turns out that Jayavarman II was the founder of Angkor's power, and not only in terms of politics alone, but also in terms of Religious. Jayavarman II government reinforced by the government of his son, has changed the course of evolution altogether Khmer Empire. The country was again united under a single authority, that is strong, and unmatched.
2. INDRAVARMAN
Substitute the two founders of Angkor Indravarman (877-889 AD) contributed to fostering a solid foundation for Ankor power, both in politics and social and economic. Recognized authority to Cochin-China, to the U-Bon in the Siamese, maybe even into Champa. As a strong adherent of the teachings of Shiva, he is trying to develop the cult of the king who had died, which started by Jayawarman II, which may be above the influence of Java.
3. YASOVARMAN
Yasovarman, Indravarman son replace him in 889M. From his mother, he is a descendant of the royal family of Fu-nan which old Palin. His teacher a Brahmin, a member of the family priest who was assigned to take care of Jayavarman II, the royal phallus worship. As the son Indravarman, and universal heir of the kings of Fu-nan, and followers of the ideas of Jayavarman II, in his collected all the advantages that have led to the birth of Angkor.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
A. KHMER hegemony
1. KOH Ker
Harshavarman I, Yasovarman siblings, substituting in the year 900 AD and ruled until around the year 921 AD Since the year 921 AD, Jayavarman IV uncle, rebelled and built a new capital at Koh Ker Chok Gargyar now about 70 sea miles east of Angkor.
Like his predecessors, Jayavarman IV was an admirer of Shiva. In the capital city which he built a new sacred phallus, a repetition of the action Jayavarman II who built Angkor, perhaps with the same goal which is celebrating its success seize kekeuasaan. He died in 941 AD and his son still reigned in the Koh Ker know till 941 AD
2. BACK TO ANGKOR
Rajendravarman (944-968 AD), the nephew of the usurper and also Yasovarman, back to the city as soon as he ascended the throne. Return it is more meaningful because the new king, according to matrilineal descent, is at the center of the former ruling prince Tchen-la's. With the choice that marked the breakup with soil origin and displacement of people kambuja permanently into lowland Khmer people and the ruler over the whole of southern Indochina. To atone for his departure, according to the tradition of Indravarman era, when just arrived back at Angkor, the temple dedicated rajendravarman Mebon (years 974-952 AD) to the ancestors of the royal family.
In politics, rajendravarman kekeuasaannya expand into Champa and served until the year 945-956 AD, his troops ransacked the Po Nagar in Nha-light. His son Jayavarman V replaced in the year 968 AD and ruled till 1001 AD He continued his father's politics, especially strengthening the Khmer rule over the territory of Champa.
3. SURYA DYNASTY (oversized solar)
The years pertamaabad to-11 AD, a new dynasty took power. Suryavarman I, descendant of "The Solar" from kambuja, apparently conquered Angkor kekuasaanyang usurper by force of arms. After defeating the two successor Jayavarman V's reign was not long, he settled in the capital by the year 1011 AD
Suryavarman I have Khmer properties similar to their predecessors. The only significant change in his administration is opening the door as wide of Buddhist religion. The king's personal religious cult of Shiva and continue the already applied king of kings his predecessors. Suryavarman I reigned until 1050 AD For the Khmer empire he had annexed the whole of southern Siam, from Lopburu samapi Ligor, and probably most of southern Laos, probably extends to Luang Prabang.
His son, Udayadityavarman II, to replace them and live up to in 1066 AD Although his reign was short, and always dirusuhkan by rebels in all provinces vast empire, he still had time to expand his power and may have peak power at the highest ever achieved by a Khmer king.
Udayadityavarman II adlah religious believers to practice their religion secaraa Siwayang tight, although he was inclined to worship wisnu. Even during his reign marked a kind of anti-Buddhist reaction, but does not eliminate the persistent belief berkembeng in Cambodia since the 11th century AD
Her youngest sister in 1066 to replace the AD and ruled under the name Harshavarman II, samapai by the year 1080 AD He was forced to deal with those attacks have been memerdekan Chamyang ourselves and even managed to burn the ancient town of Sambor unhampered IBI Kuk, after collecting a lucrative booty. Under his rule, the rule of Surya dynasty rapidly declined. After memeribntah for less than a century, the dynasty must be surrendered to a new dynasty.
B. SHADOW OF ANGKOR Indochina
1. Champa
Towards the end of the 9th century AD, a new dynasty to rule in Champa, with its capital Indrapura, which is now named Quang-Nam. Its founder is Indravarman II (875-before the year 898 AD), a devout Buddhists. Under his rule and his successors, after a war during the previous century, established peaceful relations with the archipelago.
King Indravarman III (by the year 918-960 AD) was forced mengusirserangan Khmer-attack and maybe how to confront it, he is very keen to send utuysan-envoy to China. But Angkor is quite dominant influence under his rule. Meanwhile, a far greater danger began to press Campa. After becoming independent, Annam took over the expansion of political and glanced at the fertile lowlands and the cities are prosperous Champa. Since the end of the 10th century AD began the war between the fatal and difficult to reconcile these two forces, because the terms of the country's survival is at stake. In the year 982 AD the Vietnamese seized Indrapura.
Cham people are scattered, regrouped under a new seorangraja, Harivarman II (988-998 AD), which puts more capital to the south, in Vijaya (Binh-Dinh). Vietnam pressures will never slack again, the opposite occurs nearly every year-invasion assault, till the Vijaya who were taken away in the year 1044 AD and destroyed in the year 1069 AD thus the country of Champa lost territory to the north, because at the same time he must face new attacks Khmer people.
Harivarman IV (1070-1080 AD) untuyk temporary halt evacuations unremitting, he also succeeded in a lightning attack into Cambodia. He restore peace and glory to his country. Substitute-pengantinya: Jaya Indravarman II (1081-1113 AD), Harivarman V (1113-1139 AD), and Jaya Indravarman III (1139-1145 AD), may be regarded as secure and govern in a state of calm, before the dynasty and the country fell on year 1145 AD into the hands of Khmer troops.
2. SIAM
At the beginning of the 11th century AD, delta conjoined becoming an integral part of the world Angkor, Angkor can be seen from the greatest king Suryavarman I, the original Prince Ligor. Although influenced Khmer Empire, the former did not leave the country Dvaravati Buddhism, he even menjadipusat Hinayana Buddhism the most orthodox. In the same period, the Mon and Pyu of the Irrawaddy delta, united by the king Anorata (1044-1077 AD), the king is what makes their country so pemeluik Buddhism. With reinforced by Burmese who also has embraced it and through the country by continuing contacts with Sri Lanka, the doctrine is slowly spreading to the east. With the conquest, the kings of Angkor are berajaran Shiva integrate into the country's religious center that undermine their power, although not as direct causes.
3. VIETNAM
Served until the 10th century AD, the delta of Tonkin tal more than a colony of China. During the colonial period that lasted more than a thousand years, the Vietnamese colonialist culture to absorb, so it will be lasting forever.
By leveraging the power slump overlord overlord-Tang dynasty, a local dynasty seized power in 938 AD Of course Annam continued to recognize the authority that only the name alone of the Chinese Emperor, asking for support if necessary and continue using Chinese characters, as well as law and culture. When the Vietnamese people began to feel tightness in their delta, because it is only capable of working on the lowlands, only the targeted land is located to the south of Campa.
Le Vietnamese dynasties beginning (years 980-1009 AD), and Ly (1010-1225 AD), little by little to expand their power, to destroy altogether Campa. But the expansion of power throughout southern pesisr done with violence only produces a population growth rather than kejayaaan a civilization. The Vietnamese got the victory because of their numbers. Although they still use bagab Chinese administration, but quite loose, Vietnam became a unified nation thanks to its geography than that unites mind. This nation is composed of identical basic elements that bertdsampingan but relatifberdiri own, as each tried to survive on its own.
C. Heyday ANGKOR KINGDOM
Destruction of Angkor by the Cham is the fatal blow to the Hindu tradition, which until then had been enrich Khmer civilization. The event is actually possible to also mark the end of Cambodia itself. Along with that civilization developed and to reach crystallization in Angkor stalemate. He was no longer able to renew itself, developed as much as possible is just the themes that's all.
This is reinforced by the rapid advancement of Buddhism throughout the 12th century AD, based upon the number of statues of the Wise multiply. The fact that is more meaningful: a king of Angkor, Dharanindravarman II, officially embraced Buddhism. After that victory Cham regarded as supra-natural disaster, the signal from the sky: the end of an institution so digembor-heralded, because as if created by the gods themselves and unshakable.
1. JAYAVARMAN VII
This is the figure who suspended the fate of a fatal blow by placing his country under the banner of Buddhism. He was a figure who memepesonakan, and the most prominent in the history of Khmer. Jayavarman VII was king of the most arrogant and hungry for victory among all the Khmer kings who ditonjolkannya are actions.
He ascended the throne in indirect replace his father, this is when his father died, he was berperangdi Champa and did not get to sue haknya.dia not do anything when Yasovarman II ascended the throne even when Angkor was taken by Tribhuvanadityavarman. He has spent all alone in that period with Preah Khan, Kompong Svay.
After suffering from leprosy, and healed thanks to miracles. He then returned to the stage of political and religious. When the Cham invasion which made him act. After a series of devastating wars, including battles in the lakes, he expelled the destroyer of Angkor, and in 1811 AD he took the throne. In the age of more than sixty years old and burnt the capital, he took revenge by the gruesome way. He invaded Champa, Vijaya annex. Previously he had been guaranteed Annam be neutral. But once she succeeded, pasukannyaditamabh with troops of Champa, Siam, Burma, invaded Annam. In the north west it is more forward again limit his kingdom down to Vientiane, to Burma, south to the Malay Peninsula.
But behind kesuksessannya in beragamanya aspect, that his activity was almost delirious, and he was an adherent of Mahayana Buddhism. Under the banner of a rather conventional Buddhist Jayavarman did not leave the cult of the king, the god of the earth. Apparently he did not change the underlying ritual Hindu kingdom of Angkor.
D. Setbacks AND END OF THE KINGDOM OF ANGKOR
After Jayavarman VII, the king of Angkor no longer noteworthy. Capital city is still there and his appearance has not changed. Chinese texts, Tcheu Takuan, the famous traveler who visited Cambodia in 1295 AD was described as the city's wealthiest, most powerful king in southern seas. Until 1430, the Khmer kings still reign at Angkor.
Other causes in the economic field this kingdom was in danger. Angkor's hydraulic system owned maintenance and development needs are not met for the mud and traffic jams. With the weakening of royal power, the more toward economic collapse because only the king who is able mengelolo this giant network. Inevitably agriculture at Angkor semakinmenurun and result in a decrease in the population. In addition, malaria epidemics follow exacerbating the fall of Angkor.
Loss of Angkor accelerated by the Thai invasion bertubui insistently and destructive. After the cities of Angkor can be captured by their enemies and then the stolen wealth and burned. So people leave Angkor Cambodia.
(Taken from my website and translated using google translate) http://fauzihistory.blogspot.com/2009/03/kerajaan-angkor.html
Kamis, 10 Februari 2011
Origins and History of Batik Indonesia
Origins and History of Batik Indonesia
Batik is historically derived from ancestors, known since the seventeenth century, written and painted on palm leaves. At the moment motif batik pattern is still dominated by forms of animals and plants. But in its development history of batik have evolved, from painting motifs of animals and plants gradually turn to the abstract patterns that resemble a cloud, temple reliefs, wayang beber and so forth. Furthermore, through the merger of the painting with the art of decorating style clothing, batik art show as we know it today.
The type and style of traditional batik quite so much, but the patterns and variations in accordance with the philosophy and culture of each region are very diverse. Indonesia's cultural treasures so rich nation has been driving styles and types of batik tradisioanal with the characteristics of specialty themselves.
The development of Batik in Indonesia
The history of batik in Indonesia with regard to the development of the Majapahit kingdom and the kingdom afterwards. In some records, the development of batik is mostly done in times of Mataram kingdom, then in the kingdom of Solo and Yogyakarta.
Art of batik is an art image on the fabric for clothing that was one of the family culture of Indonesian kings of old. Batik initially worked in the palace alone are limited and the results for the king's clothes and family and his followers. Because many of the followers of the king who lived outside the palace, the art of batik was brought by them out palace and place of each work.
The process of making batik
In the development of this batik art gradually imitated by the people nearest and subsequently expanded into the work of women in the household to fill his spare time. Furthermore, batik clothes that used only the royal family, then became a popular folk clothes, both women and men.
White fabric that is used when it is the result of homespun. Medium dye materials used consisted of plants native to Indonesia who made himself among others of: noni tree, tall, soga, indigo, and the material is made from soda ash soda, as well as salts made from mud soil.
So this batik in Indonesia has been known since the time of Majapahit kingdom and continued to grow until the next kingdom. The start spreading this batik art belongs to the people of Indonesia and Java in particular tribe is after the end of the eighteenth century or early nineteenth century. Produced batik batik is all to the early twentieth century and printed batik is known only after the world war was over unity or around 1920. Now, batik has become part of traditional Indonesian clothing.
Pekalongan Batik
Although no official records began to be known when the batik in Pekalongan, but according to estimates existing in Pekalongan batik around the year 1800. Even according to data recorded at the Ministry, batik was made 1802, like a small tree motif in the form of clothes.
But significant progress is expected to occur after a major war in 1825-1830 in the kingdom of Mataram which is often referred to as Java Diponegoro war or war. With the onset of this battle royal family and urged his followers were many who left the kingdom. They then spread towards the East and West. Later in the area - a new area that the family and followers develop batik.
To the east of Solo and Yogyakarta Batik batik patterns that have been perfected in Mojokerto and Tulungagung to spread to Gresik, Surabaya and Madura. Medium westward batik developed in Banyumas, Kebumen, Tegal, Cirebon and Pekalongan. With this migration, the batik Pekalongan that have been there before growing.
Over time, Batik Pekalongan experiencing rapid development compared to other regions. In this region batik evolved around the coastal areas, namely in Pekalongan city and regional areas Buaran, Pekajangan and Wonopringgo.
Pekalongan public encounter with the various nations such as China, Dutch, Arabic, Indian, Malay and Japanese in ancient times has colored the dynamics of color motifs and batik art.
In connection with the several types of batik motif result of the influence of various countries who came to be known as the identity of Pekalongan batik. The motive was, that is batik Jlamprang, inspired from Indian and Arab Affairs. Then batik Encim and Klengenan, influenced by the Peranakan Chinese. Dutch batik, batik Morning Afternoon, and batik Hokokai, grown rapidly since the Japanese occupation.
The development of print culture techniques using dye motifs cover the night (candles) on the fabric which is then called batik, is inseparable from the influence of those countries. This shows the context of the flexibility of batik from time to time.
Pekalongan batik is very unique because it relies entirely on hundreds of small entrepreneurs, rather than on a handful of large employers have capital. Since many decades ago until now, most of Pekalongan batik production process is done in homes. As a result, closely united with batik Pekalongan Pekalongan community life that is now divided into two administrative regions, namely Pekalongan Municipality and Regency of Pekalongan.
Pekalongan batik tidal development, showing Pekalongan eligible to become an icon for the development of batik in Indonesia. Icon for works of art that never gave up with the times and always dynamic. Now, batik has become a breath of everyday life Pekalongan residents and is one superior product. This is because many industries which produce batik. Because the product is known for his batik, known as CITY BATIK Pekalongan. The nickname came from a long tradition rooted in Pekalongan. During that long period, various properties, the variety of uses, type design, as well as batik quality is determined by the climate and the presence of fibers of local, historical factors, trade and community readiness to accept and understand new ideas.
Batik is an art culture that admired the world, among the traditional varieties produced with dye technology hurdles, none of which can be present as beautiful and as smooth as batik Pekalongan.
(Taken from the website and translated using googletranslate)http://oxana.blogdetik.com/2009/10/13/asal-usul-dan-sejarah-batik-indonesia/
Batik is historically derived from ancestors, known since the seventeenth century, written and painted on palm leaves. At the moment motif batik pattern is still dominated by forms of animals and plants. But in its development history of batik have evolved, from painting motifs of animals and plants gradually turn to the abstract patterns that resemble a cloud, temple reliefs, wayang beber and so forth. Furthermore, through the merger of the painting with the art of decorating style clothing, batik art show as we know it today.
The type and style of traditional batik quite so much, but the patterns and variations in accordance with the philosophy and culture of each region are very diverse. Indonesia's cultural treasures so rich nation has been driving styles and types of batik tradisioanal with the characteristics of specialty themselves.
The development of Batik in Indonesia
The history of batik in Indonesia with regard to the development of the Majapahit kingdom and the kingdom afterwards. In some records, the development of batik is mostly done in times of Mataram kingdom, then in the kingdom of Solo and Yogyakarta.
Art of batik is an art image on the fabric for clothing that was one of the family culture of Indonesian kings of old. Batik initially worked in the palace alone are limited and the results for the king's clothes and family and his followers. Because many of the followers of the king who lived outside the palace, the art of batik was brought by them out palace and place of each work.
The process of making batik
In the development of this batik art gradually imitated by the people nearest and subsequently expanded into the work of women in the household to fill his spare time. Furthermore, batik clothes that used only the royal family, then became a popular folk clothes, both women and men.
White fabric that is used when it is the result of homespun. Medium dye materials used consisted of plants native to Indonesia who made himself among others of: noni tree, tall, soga, indigo, and the material is made from soda ash soda, as well as salts made from mud soil.
So this batik in Indonesia has been known since the time of Majapahit kingdom and continued to grow until the next kingdom. The start spreading this batik art belongs to the people of Indonesia and Java in particular tribe is after the end of the eighteenth century or early nineteenth century. Produced batik batik is all to the early twentieth century and printed batik is known only after the world war was over unity or around 1920. Now, batik has become part of traditional Indonesian clothing.
Pekalongan Batik
Although no official records began to be known when the batik in Pekalongan, but according to estimates existing in Pekalongan batik around the year 1800. Even according to data recorded at the Ministry, batik was made 1802, like a small tree motif in the form of clothes.
But significant progress is expected to occur after a major war in 1825-1830 in the kingdom of Mataram which is often referred to as Java Diponegoro war or war. With the onset of this battle royal family and urged his followers were many who left the kingdom. They then spread towards the East and West. Later in the area - a new area that the family and followers develop batik.
To the east of Solo and Yogyakarta Batik batik patterns that have been perfected in Mojokerto and Tulungagung to spread to Gresik, Surabaya and Madura. Medium westward batik developed in Banyumas, Kebumen, Tegal, Cirebon and Pekalongan. With this migration, the batik Pekalongan that have been there before growing.
Over time, Batik Pekalongan experiencing rapid development compared to other regions. In this region batik evolved around the coastal areas, namely in Pekalongan city and regional areas Buaran, Pekajangan and Wonopringgo.
Pekalongan public encounter with the various nations such as China, Dutch, Arabic, Indian, Malay and Japanese in ancient times has colored the dynamics of color motifs and batik art.
In connection with the several types of batik motif result of the influence of various countries who came to be known as the identity of Pekalongan batik. The motive was, that is batik Jlamprang, inspired from Indian and Arab Affairs. Then batik Encim and Klengenan, influenced by the Peranakan Chinese. Dutch batik, batik Morning Afternoon, and batik Hokokai, grown rapidly since the Japanese occupation.
The development of print culture techniques using dye motifs cover the night (candles) on the fabric which is then called batik, is inseparable from the influence of those countries. This shows the context of the flexibility of batik from time to time.
Pekalongan batik is very unique because it relies entirely on hundreds of small entrepreneurs, rather than on a handful of large employers have capital. Since many decades ago until now, most of Pekalongan batik production process is done in homes. As a result, closely united with batik Pekalongan Pekalongan community life that is now divided into two administrative regions, namely Pekalongan Municipality and Regency of Pekalongan.
Pekalongan batik tidal development, showing Pekalongan eligible to become an icon for the development of batik in Indonesia. Icon for works of art that never gave up with the times and always dynamic. Now, batik has become a breath of everyday life Pekalongan residents and is one superior product. This is because many industries which produce batik. Because the product is known for his batik, known as CITY BATIK Pekalongan. The nickname came from a long tradition rooted in Pekalongan. During that long period, various properties, the variety of uses, type design, as well as batik quality is determined by the climate and the presence of fibers of local, historical factors, trade and community readiness to accept and understand new ideas.
Batik is an art culture that admired the world, among the traditional varieties produced with dye technology hurdles, none of which can be present as beautiful and as smooth as batik Pekalongan.
(Taken from the website and translated using googletranslate)http://oxana.blogdetik.com/2009/10/13/asal-usul-dan-sejarah-batik-indonesia/
List Gunungkidul Coast Tourism, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
As the region directly adjacent to the southern sea, Gunungkidul district have reliable beach attractions are abundant. The beauty of sea and land smack into the tourism potential of the district south of Mount which will become contributors to the revenue (PAD) District in Yogyakarta Special Region, which borders Solo / Surakarta this. Here is a list of attractions in Gunungkidul out the matchless beauty:
Beach Banyunibo: Purwodadi, Tepus
Baron Beach: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Busung: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beaches Need: Karambilsawit, Saptosari
Drini Beach: Banjarejo, Tanjungsari
Beach Gesing: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Grigak: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach moat Kulon: Purwodadi, Tepus
Jogan Beach Wetan: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Karangtelu: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Kelosirat: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Kesirat: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Klampok: Girijati, Purwosari
Beach Klumpit: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Krakal: Ngestirejo, Tanjungsari
Beach Krokoh: Songbanyu, Girisubo
Kukup Beach: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Lambor: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Langkap: Karambilsawit, Saptosari
Beach Muncar: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Nampu: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach Ngandong: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Beach Ngetun: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngobaran: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Ngondo: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngrenehan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Nguluran: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngungap: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngunggah: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach Nguyahan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Pakundon: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Parangedong: Girijati, Purwosari
Beach Parangracuk: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Sadeng: Pucung, Girisubo
Beach Sawahan: Purwodadi, Tepus
Along the coast: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Siung: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Slili: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Beach Songlibeg: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Sundak: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Coast Buck: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Torohudan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Watugupit: Giricahyo, Purwosari
Beach Watutogok: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Wediombo: Jepitu, Girisubo
Beach Weru: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Banyunibo: Purwodadi, Tepus
Baron Beach: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Busung: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beaches Need: Karambilsawit, Saptosari
Drini Beach: Banjarejo, Tanjungsari
Beach Gesing: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Grigak: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach moat Kulon: Purwodadi, Tepus
Jogan Beach Wetan: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Karangtelu: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Kelosirat: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Kesirat: Girikarto, Bake
Beach Klampok: Girijati, Purwosari
Beach Klumpit: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Krakal: Ngestirejo, Tanjungsari
Beach Krokoh: Songbanyu, Girisubo
Kukup Beach: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Lambor: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Langkap: Karambilsawit, Saptosari
Beach Muncar: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Nampu: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach Ngandong: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Beach Ngetun: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngobaran: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Ngondo: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngrenehan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Nguluran: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngungap: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Ngunggah: Giriwungu, Bake
Beach Nguyahan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Pakundon: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Parangedong: Girijati, Purwosari
Beach Parangracuk: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Sadeng: Pucung, Girisubo
Beach Sawahan: Purwodadi, Tepus
Along the coast: Kemadang, Tanjungsari
Beach Siung: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Slili: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Beach Songlibeg: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Sundak: Sidoharjo, Tepus
Coast Buck: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Torohudan: Kanigoro, Saptosari
Beach Watugupit: Giricahyo, Purwosari
Beach Watutogok: Purwodadi, Tepus
Beach Wediombo: Jepitu, Girisubo
Beach Weru: Purwodadi, Tepus
Kukup Beach, Melody Natural Gunungkidul
Kukup Beach is located in the Village District Kemadang Tanjungsari Gunungkidul Yogyakarta. With white sand that is the hallmark of the beaches on the south coast of Java island, beach Kukup presents a scene that was so beautiful. Coastal breeze breeze to make the visitors feel comfortable being here. Sitting relaxing in sturdy corals stand to enjoy the rhythm of the waves of reconcile heart.
On the beach Kukup there is a reef that juts into the sea separated from the mainland by a bridge that stretched. The road climbed deliberately made as access to the reef are increasingly pampering their guests.
Some of the facilities available at the beach Kukup include: parking space, so that the visitors no confusion to park his vehicle. Parking is located at the entrance some distance from the coast so that visitors must walk to reach the edge of the sea. On the sides of the street into the silt beach lined the merchants who offer a variety of souvenirs beach, sea foods and some marine life including ornamental fish that can be purchased at reasonable rates.
To ensure the safety of visitors, the manager prepares a fleet of SAR to provide relief to the needy as well as informing the beach, the waves and the arrival of dangerous marine life. Please be aware and wary of the visitors, that sometimes come at this beach jellyfish in the coastal region that if the bite will cause poisoning. But do not worry, the SAR team will inform the arrival of the jellyfish and is ready to assist if there are visitors who are already exposed to the jellyfish. Actually there is a treatment that works, namely by applying a bite mark with the sap of shellfish that many are sold there. Then drink black coffee to speed up the neutralization of toxins. So do not feel afraid to play waves on the shore silt during still comply with regulations that conveyed by the SAR team through a loudspeaker.
For the visitors who want to spend the night at the Beach Kukup need not confused. In Kukup Beach area attractions, there are lodging BOARDING TOUR that will serve the tourists who want to experience the night scene in Kukup with affordable prices.
Congratulations Kukup relax on the beach, build sand castles and white, feel the roll of silt friendly wave or just sit staring wide expanse of the ocean while listening to the strains of orchestral Kukup natural beach.
Beach Sundak
Sundak, a beach in the district of Gunungkidul, precisely in the village district Sidoharjo Tepus. Being in the ranks of the south coast lined with beaches Kukup, Krakal, Drini, and Beaches Along the Baron.
Sheets of white sand that lay along the shore, waiting for the waves that kissed tenderly ran a supremely long harbored a deep, giving comfort eye could see. Breeze caressing the leaves waving at the end of the branches that grow around the coast of soothing peace seekers.
Stretch of shoreline bergincu tiny coral-reef marine playground nan adorable. Corals that stands firmly as Coast guard Sundak nan sturdy and brave. Limestone hills in the background adds elegance towering coastal and inland sea meeting the southern coast of Java island.
Sundak, a fusion between the ASU name and porcupine. Starting from the battle between ASU (dog), and Urchin. Pergelutan which left a trail for residents about the existence of a cave with a source of fresh water in it.
Sundak, one of Enchantment Gunungkidul are still buried, will terkabur news maze.
Sundak as a milestone, that is not Gunungkidul kekerontangan but an exotic beauty....
baron beach
Baron Beach, the most popular beach in Gunungkidul, because this beach is the first beach that will be encountered when visiting group of sea and land smack intimate, chic symbol of Gunung beach tourism. Coast Range Baron, Kukup Beach, Beach Along, Beach and Beach Sundak Krakal row there, pamper visitors will hubbub heart peace carrier wave.
Baron Beach is located in the Village Kemadang, Tanjungsari District, about 20 km south of the city Wonosari (40 km from the city of Yogyakarta). Coast to witness the meeting between sea water and fresh water, which is the result of a river which empties in one corner of the beach baron, as a symbol of two hearts berpadunya although with different backgrounds.
The tourists will be pampered with a beauty that brought the wind waves tuk making out with a stretch of sand, so patiently waiting for her lover. The results Barron wealth like a big prawn (lobster), fish, white pomfret, snapper, tuna are ready to pamper guests, whether they are fresh and ready to eat. As a recommendation, here is a menu mainstay Snapper Soup.
One moment missed is very dear Alms Sea Ceremony organized by the local fishing community suro every month in Javanese calendar, as an expression of gratitude to Almighty God for an abundance of seafood that has been given.
Baron Beach is located in the Village Kemadang, Tanjungsari District, about 20 km south of the city Wonosari (40 km from the city of Yogyakarta). Coast to witness the meeting between sea water and fresh water, which is the result of a river which empties in one corner of the beach baron, as a symbol of two hearts berpadunya although with different backgrounds.
The tourists will be pampered with a beauty that brought the wind waves tuk making out with a stretch of sand, so patiently waiting for her lover. The results Barron wealth like a big prawn (lobster), fish, white pomfret, snapper, tuna are ready to pamper guests, whether they are fresh and ready to eat. As a recommendation, here is a menu mainstay Snapper Soup.
One moment missed is very dear Alms Sea Ceremony organized by the local fishing community suro every month in Javanese calendar, as an expression of gratitude to Almighty God for an abundance of seafood that has been given.
Kamis, 20 Januari 2011
Collection Source: Heuristics
Heuristic (from Greek: Heuriskein which means finding). So the stage heuristic is an activity to collect source historian, traces - traces the history is required. If we remember that history is made up so many periods with all aspects of life such as: political, economic, social, cultural, legal, military, agriculture and so on, then we perrlu seek diverse sources.
For ease in a study, the source - the source of such a complex history of many species that need diklerifikasi. Therefore, in the discussion of historical sources have described various types of historical sources.
A. Some basic statement.
Before we do the research and writing of history, especially the activities of gathering resources - resources history, there are some important notes that the capital to become a professional historian.
1. Historian "Ideal"
A historian is ideal both as a historian researcher (professional historian, or the practitioner's history) as well as historians of educators (teachers of history), need to have the background, ability, attitude or faith that becomes completeness.
2. Six Step study
a. Choosing an appropriate object;
b. Investigate all evidence relevant to the topic;
c. Make notes about what it considered important and relevant to the topic that was found when the study is in progress.
d. Critically evaluate all the evidence it has collected;
e. Compiling the results - the results of research into a pattern that is true;
f. Presenting in a way that can attract attention and communicate to the reader.
3. Choosing Topics
a. Value (Value)
Topics that should be able to give an explanation for a significant and in the sense of a universal, aspects of human experience perhaps through case study approach or by demonstrating its relationship with the larger movement.
b. Authenticity (Originality)
If the selected subjects have been studied in earlier research, you must make sure that you can display one - or both:
1) New evidence is very substantial and signifiakan, or a
2) Interpretasibaru of evidence that is valid and can be given.
c. Practicality (Practicality)
1) The existence of sources - sources that can be obtained without any difficulty which is not rational.
2) The ability to use the correct source - the source of it based on your educational background or previous.
3) Room includes peneitian.
d. Unity (Unity)
Each study must have a unified theme or directed to a unified theme or directed to a question or a proportion of the round, which will give researchers a starting point, a forward direction to a specific destination, and sutu hope or promise that would give birth to conclusions - conclusions that special.
For ease in a study, the source - the source of such a complex history of many species that need diklerifikasi. Therefore, in the discussion of historical sources have described various types of historical sources.
A. Some basic statement.
Before we do the research and writing of history, especially the activities of gathering resources - resources history, there are some important notes that the capital to become a professional historian.
1. Historian "Ideal"
A historian is ideal both as a historian researcher (professional historian, or the practitioner's history) as well as historians of educators (teachers of history), need to have the background, ability, attitude or faith that becomes completeness.
2. Six Step study
a. Choosing an appropriate object;
b. Investigate all evidence relevant to the topic;
c. Make notes about what it considered important and relevant to the topic that was found when the study is in progress.
d. Critically evaluate all the evidence it has collected;
e. Compiling the results - the results of research into a pattern that is true;
f. Presenting in a way that can attract attention and communicate to the reader.
3. Choosing Topics
a. Value (Value)
Topics that should be able to give an explanation for a significant and in the sense of a universal, aspects of human experience perhaps through case study approach or by demonstrating its relationship with the larger movement.
b. Authenticity (Originality)
If the selected subjects have been studied in earlier research, you must make sure that you can display one - or both:
1) New evidence is very substantial and signifiakan, or a
2) Interpretasibaru of evidence that is valid and can be given.
c. Practicality (Practicality)
1) The existence of sources - sources that can be obtained without any difficulty which is not rational.
2) The ability to use the correct source - the source of it based on your educational background or previous.
3) Room includes peneitian.
d. Unity (Unity)
Each study must have a unified theme or directed to a unified theme or directed to a question or a proportion of the round, which will give researchers a starting point, a forward direction to a specific destination, and sutu hope or promise that would give birth to conclusions - conclusions that special.
HISTORICAL FACT
A. Basic trust history
The term knowledge is sometimes limited only by what we learn from experience or reason, not of belief. Logical knowledge is included in the distance, which means all of the facts and the truth is restrained from the human mind, not convoluted - convolution of the source obtained. The knowledge which we call as historical documents or historical knowledge, almost entirely disarkan on trust, which might be an affirmation, a mental assent to a truth or a fact on the word or other experts. There are 2 parts preformance in the process. A person (witness, informant) convey knowledge and someone (who believe) accept it. Actual communication of knowledge or testimony may indicate the contents of the delivery of knowledge.
The incident happened as history in an objective sense is no longer possible or experienced repeated again, but the marks as a memory can be disclosed or actualized. Disclosure form again is a statement (statement) about the incident. Thus, it is clear that the facts have been the product of mental processes (historian) or memorisasi. Therefore, essentially the fact also is subjective, includes elements of the subject.
There are a few things to note before we trust the testimony of the witness:
• Before accepting the testimony of witnesses, we must have some way of confirming what he really - really or can be as alleged to have knowledge of the testimony which he gave.
• A witness must be good faith, must have a purpose and a desire to tell the truth and report the facts as known. Honesty is the most basic of all requirements for qualification of a witness.
• Communication actual knowledge to others. People with knowledge of the best and probably intends to prove his possessions are not satisfying the deadline for testimony. Got a memory shortage, the power statement is incomplete and behaviors that are not aware that tall - exaggerated. This can lead to the testimony of one's hard to believe.
Trust is an absolute condition of social life every day. Greatest proportion of each person gained knowledge not from experience or personal reasons remain with the trust given by others. Together with the confidence of witnesses, only the facts that determine his testimony.
The motive of a trust is the main idea contained in the trust to accept because something is true, the world or other. On the other hand the trust not only directly sourced to the witness but also evidence - evidence that can be produced for the honesty or the truth of what he said. The possibility is often the case, with the help of a reference writer, which is given in a footnote to return to the main source of his statement, which often needs to be done in small problems or doubts.
B. Basic - Basic certainty history
The main function of the methodology is to identify ways and means of delivery history, which can be found or be interpreted as a firm approval from the mind to the historical data without fear because of the wrong reasons.
Based on the natural motives which are unfounded, certainty may be moral, physical and meta physical.
a. Motif work or justify
Moral certainty is known as the uniform or announce some of the moral law. History is largely a problem of confidence in the other testimony, and as testimony is an issue that is conditioned by its very basic moral laws, for most of the certainty of history is the history that exists. Certainty can be achieved in the history of frequent outcome of a series of possibilities that centralized, that gives the highest possibility that rare indistinguishable from certainty, and so the logicians often call it "moral certainty". Moral certainty as it applies in history, perhaps best defined as "an assurance that exclude all reasonable doubt,"
b. Certainty is the command history when the basic physical or motif is a uniform operation of known physical laws. Physical laws and conditions of the game which is an important part in the assessment of critical evidence. For example, we know that the time spent in one trip should be conditioned by the distance to be covered and transportation equipment are available.
c. Metaphysical certainty discover the basics of an absolute principle in its applications, do not admit exceptions. That sort of thing is the principle of contradiction / opposition ("the one thing that can not exist and no at the same time") and sufficient reason ("no one is without a sufficient reason," a principle of different causes). The possibility of metaphysical certainty in history it is reductive in character, for instance: "A historical facts which are stated without evidence reported by several independent witnesses. But their consent may not be explained except by the objective truth of the facts that are reported (the principle of sufficient reason). Consequently the fact A is said it must be metaphysical. ".
The facts are impossible to build (in history) is especially cover a wide space or time (sometimes referred to as general facts), customs, doctrine, istitusi, big event, the fact it is easier to observe than others and is now much easier to prove. In the case of ancient and medieval times, pemgetahuan history is limited to the facts common to the scarcity of documents. Basics of certainty is the experience of one's personal history, or the testimony of another person. Private practice, where experience exists, can be hung as a source of specific knowledge.
Sumber :
Garaghan, Gilbert. 1957. A Guide to Historical Method. New York: Fordham U.P.
Kartodirdjo, Sartono. 1992. Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial Dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta : Gramedia Pustaka Utama
U.P.Hugiono. 1992. Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta
The term knowledge is sometimes limited only by what we learn from experience or reason, not of belief. Logical knowledge is included in the distance, which means all of the facts and the truth is restrained from the human mind, not convoluted - convolution of the source obtained. The knowledge which we call as historical documents or historical knowledge, almost entirely disarkan on trust, which might be an affirmation, a mental assent to a truth or a fact on the word or other experts. There are 2 parts preformance in the process. A person (witness, informant) convey knowledge and someone (who believe) accept it. Actual communication of knowledge or testimony may indicate the contents of the delivery of knowledge.
The incident happened as history in an objective sense is no longer possible or experienced repeated again, but the marks as a memory can be disclosed or actualized. Disclosure form again is a statement (statement) about the incident. Thus, it is clear that the facts have been the product of mental processes (historian) or memorisasi. Therefore, essentially the fact also is subjective, includes elements of the subject.
There are a few things to note before we trust the testimony of the witness:
• Before accepting the testimony of witnesses, we must have some way of confirming what he really - really or can be as alleged to have knowledge of the testimony which he gave.
• A witness must be good faith, must have a purpose and a desire to tell the truth and report the facts as known. Honesty is the most basic of all requirements for qualification of a witness.
• Communication actual knowledge to others. People with knowledge of the best and probably intends to prove his possessions are not satisfying the deadline for testimony. Got a memory shortage, the power statement is incomplete and behaviors that are not aware that tall - exaggerated. This can lead to the testimony of one's hard to believe.
Trust is an absolute condition of social life every day. Greatest proportion of each person gained knowledge not from experience or personal reasons remain with the trust given by others. Together with the confidence of witnesses, only the facts that determine his testimony.
The motive of a trust is the main idea contained in the trust to accept because something is true, the world or other. On the other hand the trust not only directly sourced to the witness but also evidence - evidence that can be produced for the honesty or the truth of what he said. The possibility is often the case, with the help of a reference writer, which is given in a footnote to return to the main source of his statement, which often needs to be done in small problems or doubts.
B. Basic - Basic certainty history
The main function of the methodology is to identify ways and means of delivery history, which can be found or be interpreted as a firm approval from the mind to the historical data without fear because of the wrong reasons.
Based on the natural motives which are unfounded, certainty may be moral, physical and meta physical.
a. Motif work or justify
Moral certainty is known as the uniform or announce some of the moral law. History is largely a problem of confidence in the other testimony, and as testimony is an issue that is conditioned by its very basic moral laws, for most of the certainty of history is the history that exists. Certainty can be achieved in the history of frequent outcome of a series of possibilities that centralized, that gives the highest possibility that rare indistinguishable from certainty, and so the logicians often call it "moral certainty". Moral certainty as it applies in history, perhaps best defined as "an assurance that exclude all reasonable doubt,"
b. Certainty is the command history when the basic physical or motif is a uniform operation of known physical laws. Physical laws and conditions of the game which is an important part in the assessment of critical evidence. For example, we know that the time spent in one trip should be conditioned by the distance to be covered and transportation equipment are available.
c. Metaphysical certainty discover the basics of an absolute principle in its applications, do not admit exceptions. That sort of thing is the principle of contradiction / opposition ("the one thing that can not exist and no at the same time") and sufficient reason ("no one is without a sufficient reason," a principle of different causes). The possibility of metaphysical certainty in history it is reductive in character, for instance: "A historical facts which are stated without evidence reported by several independent witnesses. But their consent may not be explained except by the objective truth of the facts that are reported (the principle of sufficient reason). Consequently the fact A is said it must be metaphysical. ".
The facts are impossible to build (in history) is especially cover a wide space or time (sometimes referred to as general facts), customs, doctrine, istitusi, big event, the fact it is easier to observe than others and is now much easier to prove. In the case of ancient and medieval times, pemgetahuan history is limited to the facts common to the scarcity of documents. Basics of certainty is the experience of one's personal history, or the testimony of another person. Private practice, where experience exists, can be hung as a source of specific knowledge.
Sumber :
Garaghan, Gilbert. 1957. A Guide to Historical Method. New York: Fordham U.P.
Kartodirdjo, Sartono. 1992. Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial Dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta : Gramedia Pustaka Utama
U.P.Hugiono. 1992. Pengantar Ilmu Sejarah. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta
Interpretation
In the writing of history there are three basic forms of technical writing that description, narration, and analysis. When historians write - actually a desire to explain (explanation) of history - there are two main impulse that moved him re-create (re-create) and interpret (interpret). The first impulse demanded description and narration, while the second drive demand analysis. Historians oriented historical sources only, will use the narrative portion of the description and more, while the problem-oriented historians, in addition to using description and narration, will give more priority to the analysis. But whatever way is used, it will lead to the synthesis.
When the historians write, consciously or not, recognized or not, stated explicitly or implicitly, they hold on to any one or combination of several specific philosophy of history which became the basis penafisirannya. For historians who are reluctant to use the term philosophy of history. It might be called "acua work" (frame of reference), "attention" (Interest), or "pressure" (emphasis). The philosophy of history aims to give the meaning or significance to the whole history of human activity, the pattern of uniformity (uniformity) and diversity (variety) of the motions of human activities in the past. Thus the philosophy of history is:
1. A guide (guide) for a valid interpretation of historical material;
2. An understanding of the causes and significance (significance) of the events and institutions recorded in historical materials.
As for who can be considered as factors, forces and equipment and is fundamental in human history:
1. Human
History is the study of human activities which is the manifestation of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the past. Thus the human factor and the main stakeholders.
2. Geography
Earth represents the physical world in which human life and history of the place; earth or the world is often likened to a stage of human history and as the holder of the main roles.
3. Culture
Cultural environment in which humans live in it. Human beings generally require the needs of primary and secondary in order to survive and improve their standard of living.
4. Supernatural or Merafisik
Because humans are creatures of God, the origins and purpose of life is determined by him, so for people who believe, God has an interest in this world, in humans and their activities.
Forms deterministrik interpretation is:
1. Historians of the type of social Darwinism mean to shrink into a history of physical science by choosing something physical in human beings (ethnological, descent, race) as the controlling factor in the history of communities and nations.
2. Geographical Interpretation
These historians also see the group in terms of physical as makers of history and thus belittles the role of humans. They are looking for history key in the physical environment outside of humans, such as geographical factors: climate, soil.
3. Economic Interpretation
Another philosophy of history is also deterministic mode of production (made of production) in the economic life of a nation determines the general character of the nation's history such as patterns of political, social, religious, cultural.
4. The interpretation of "Big Man"
Historians of the Romantic as two British historian Thomas Carlyle and James A. Froude argued that the main causal factors in the development of historical figures is a great man.
5. Spiritula or idealistic interpretation
This interpretation is closely related to the role of the soul, the idea of man in historical development.
6. Interpretation of Science and Technology
This interpretation is trying to see that human progress has a direct relationship with the natural sciences and technology advancement.
7. Sociological Interpretation
This interpretation is trying to look at the origin, structure and activities of human society preformance its interaction with its physical environment, society and physical environment jointly developed in a process of evolution.
8. Interpretation Synthesis
This interpretation is trying to combine all the factors or which become the driving force of history.
When the historians write, consciously or not, recognized or not, stated explicitly or implicitly, they hold on to any one or combination of several specific philosophy of history which became the basis penafisirannya. For historians who are reluctant to use the term philosophy of history. It might be called "acua work" (frame of reference), "attention" (Interest), or "pressure" (emphasis). The philosophy of history aims to give the meaning or significance to the whole history of human activity, the pattern of uniformity (uniformity) and diversity (variety) of the motions of human activities in the past. Thus the philosophy of history is:
1. A guide (guide) for a valid interpretation of historical material;
2. An understanding of the causes and significance (significance) of the events and institutions recorded in historical materials.
As for who can be considered as factors, forces and equipment and is fundamental in human history:
1. Human
History is the study of human activities which is the manifestation of thoughts, feelings, and actions in the past. Thus the human factor and the main stakeholders.
2. Geography
Earth represents the physical world in which human life and history of the place; earth or the world is often likened to a stage of human history and as the holder of the main roles.
3. Culture
Cultural environment in which humans live in it. Human beings generally require the needs of primary and secondary in order to survive and improve their standard of living.
4. Supernatural or Merafisik
Because humans are creatures of God, the origins and purpose of life is determined by him, so for people who believe, God has an interest in this world, in humans and their activities.
Forms deterministrik interpretation is:
1. Historians of the type of social Darwinism mean to shrink into a history of physical science by choosing something physical in human beings (ethnological, descent, race) as the controlling factor in the history of communities and nations.
2. Geographical Interpretation
These historians also see the group in terms of physical as makers of history and thus belittles the role of humans. They are looking for history key in the physical environment outside of humans, such as geographical factors: climate, soil.
3. Economic Interpretation
Another philosophy of history is also deterministic mode of production (made of production) in the economic life of a nation determines the general character of the nation's history such as patterns of political, social, religious, cultural.
4. The interpretation of "Big Man"
Historians of the Romantic as two British historian Thomas Carlyle and James A. Froude argued that the main causal factors in the development of historical figures is a great man.
5. Spiritula or idealistic interpretation
This interpretation is closely related to the role of the soul, the idea of man in historical development.
6. Interpretation of Science and Technology
This interpretation is trying to see that human progress has a direct relationship with the natural sciences and technology advancement.
7. Sociological Interpretation
This interpretation is trying to look at the origin, structure and activities of human society preformance its interaction with its physical environment, society and physical environment jointly developed in a process of evolution.
8. Interpretation Synthesis
This interpretation is trying to combine all the factors or which become the driving force of history.
Muslims in Africa
a. Mauritania
Mauritania is a country that shows the integration of the most powerful in terms of ethnic identity, national and state identity. Population is entirely Muslim country and identify itself as an Islamic state. Through the treaty of Paris a number of European powers recognize the government of France for Senegal and several regions in the Atlantic Sahara, including some territory that is now a territory of Mauritania. French presence strongly affected the Mauritanian political system. France looked Hassani tribes as political elites, provide subsidies to them, institutionalize their authority as a liaison between the French government and the public.
France also stop the activity that requires citizens of the traditional perampsan Hassani took over grazing and trading activities. This ni resulted in their neglect of religious tribalism which is a part of their traditional functions. Between 1902 and Mauritania in 1934 against the melting away into the French empire. A series of local insurgency can be defeated by the French causing people to stop the rebellion and accept Mauritania collaboration with the French to protect their economic interests and religious.
By the independence of Mauritania, appears much the party among the people of Mauritania. These parties include, Entente Mouritanienne which was established in 1948. The party opposition from Progressiste Mouritanienne Union (UPM). UPM own party split and there is a break-away and formed the Association de la Jeunesse Mouritanienne more loudly demanding independence. The formation of various parties in Mauritania showed that there were disputes within Mauritanian society between the traditional elite and modern politicians. But the main issue is how to preserve the identity of Mauritania to avoid absorption into the Arab nations of North Morocco or Senegal and Sudan in the south. Mauritania's independence in 1958 as the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.
Mauritania's independence by having a unitary national elite who rule society are very segmenter. After independence there unification of political parties between the Entente and UPM, thus forming a new party called Parti du Regroupement Mouritanienne. But in 1961 changed its name to Mouritanienne People Party. Thus the traditional segmenter communities in Mauritania community has been united in a single regime. The divisions of society traisional slowly be overcome through the establishment of a more unified community under a single regime that uses a metropolitan language and promises of Islamic identity.
b. Senegal
Senegal is basically a non-Muslim secular regime that ruled most of the Muslim population. Although this regime is influenced by the political culture of Europe and run by non-Muslim elites, most educated population in tariqat Sufi. Senegal is run through a collaboration between state elites and elite Sufi. Senegal represents an effort to recycle the classic pattern of supportive relations between Muslim countries and Muslim communal organizations.
French government helped support the spread of Islam. By taking a pragmatic attitude towards the Muslims and to regard them as highly civilized group, patterned live productive and capable in the field of administration. French Muslims use as a clerk, and made the village heads sebaga intermediaries and allow running the Islamic law. Under the French government scholars to wander from one place to another, to convey instruction, founded the school and formed the Muslim societies. Despite this worrying French Muslims as their political opponents. For that France tried to keep the Muslim forces are not organized and remains under French control.
France create a law school teacher nyang requires obtaining a permit and memilikii proficiency in speaking French. In 1908 France banned the circulation of newspapers in Arabic and try to develop ethnic and territorial organizations to break the Muslim community. In 1911 the French language shall be used in the Muslim judiciary and the trustee is prohibited to collect zakat. All of the above done to prevent the power of united Islamic community becomes larger.
But all policies are not applied consistently, because after World War I France to switch to policies that provide support for selectively terhdap Muslim figures. As a reward behind it, the Sufi support French efforts in creating a calm situation, army units gather, collect taxes and to increase agricultural production. Muslim elites adjust to the reality of the French government to stop political militancy which was replaced with the activities of worship, education, business economy and establish Muslim tariqat structure.
Tariqat largest and famous in Senegal is Tariqat Muridiyah founded in 1886 by Ahmad Bamba a guardian of the Wolof. He believes the war against France is a vain thing and recommend to switch from war to another job. Sheikh Ibra Fall a Mantang fighters who swear allegiance to Ahmad Bamba, trying to followers of its military into the tariqat Muridiyah. Compliance Ibra Fall marks the colonial domination and the Muslim leadership as the main requirement for the preservation of Wolof society. A mutually supportive relationship between spiritual power and temporal power tariqat endorse the establishment of a more persuasive for a number of Senegalese citizens.
But Ahmad Bamba in a long time suspected by the French as a disseminator of political and territorial aspirations. Because of this he was often exiled in 1895, 1902 and 1907. But in France tahun1912 party can accept that he was a spiritual leader and let him return to economic and Diourbel.
Indeed most of the supporters Tariqat Muridiyah are farmers, but also attract sympathy tariqat people who do not own the land, the young unemployed who worked an internship in agricultural societies. This resulted among supporters tariqat Muridiyah become very popular. In 1912 tariqat has 68,000 supporters and supporters in 1960 grew to 400,000 members. At that moment a third of the citizen-eighth Wolof and Senegalese citizens to be members of this tariqat.
In this tariqat practice of Islam is less important. Although they are fasting of Ramadan, but the obligatory prayers and fasting are other less dperhatikan. Tariqat Fall (muridiyah branch) is strikingly non-orthodox and non-compromise. The descendants of Ibrahim fall not perform Islamic prayers or rituals lainny, but they believe the attitude of resignation and work, and through gentle attitude and practice of magic they could gain the blessings of religion.
At the same time when society was organized by the Senegalese Sufi tariqat, among professional and non-Muslim urban elite took over the struggle for independence. Senegal has a history rooted political elite sejaj 19th century. Elite Senegal involved in the government of France, was working in Europe and eventually inherited the power of the state. With the dawn of Senegal's independence in 1960, Senegal was ruled by non-Muslim elite French education that dipimin by Leopold Senghor and Progressiste Senegalaise Union party. But Senegal is a country where people united by language Wolof is used by 80% of the population and because most of the citizens of Senegal is Muslim.
Senegal is an independent government headed by a president elected who raised a number of ministers. Inside there is an autonomous court. Senghor led from 1960 until 1980. In 1964, Senghor menkonsolidasi strengths and eliminate its opponents, in 1966 he decided to Senegal as a one-party socialist state. 1966 to 1976 UPS became the sole legal party in the country of Senegal, and a number of tariqat unite ourselves as a faction within the ruling party. From the years 1976-1980 Senghir allow the formation of multi-party politics and elections. After the dismissal of Senghor, Senegal was ruled for the first time a Muslim is Abdu Diouf.
Post-independence Senegal is a secular country ayang overwhelmingly Muslim. This population was organized into a number of Sufi tariqat which is a base for rural economic organizations for the citizens. Regime of the country is run in collaboration with religious leaders who became an intermediary with the public. A number of Sufi tariqat economic organizing prodiuktif nuts and gives political support to officials in the interior. Muslim Tariqat subsequently become an integral part of Senegal's political system.
At the same time, urbanization that occurred in Senegal, causing rapid population growth began to doubt authority figures magical hinterland. In some cities show interest in the Arabic language and forms of Islamic belief that the practice of emphasizing prayer, pilgrimage, ethical behavior, and intellectual interests adjacent to the suppression of religious emotion. The move was to form the Muslim Cultural Union (Muslim cultural associations) in 1953. Society is sponsoring the teaching of Arabic and Muslim schools, against colonialism, capitalism, and the influence of Sufi inland.
c. Nigeria
Islam in northern Nigeria has evolved as the religion of the elite since the 15th century. Sokoto Caliphate consolidate the identity of the Muslim political elite and make Islam the religion of the majority population. The emir is responsible for implementing justice, they raised Mallam as the prayer leader, led in the celebration and suggestions regarding religious law. Unofficially the emirs became an arbiter in local disputes.
In 1922 the British built as a high school college Katsina modern. English lessons be compulsory, and the Arabic language is inserted into part of the curriculum. Teaching Quran delivered by the Mallam to the salary of the British government. Kano Law School curriculum taught entirely Islamic. Although politically conservative, the British government evoke major changes in the economic and social. Development of road and rail network, development of agricultural exports such as nuts and cotton, farmers deliver northern Nigeria to the international market.
Economic development raises many important changes in social structure. Kano became the center of northern Nigeria market and as a thriving merchant center. Thus, the city population was divided into many ethnic groups, languages, and class. The structure is divided into an elite class of the ruling Fulani, Hausa traders wealthy, senior civil servants, middle-class merchants and the general public.
Over a century more, Lagos became the main center and the movement of the Muslim community. In 1861 the city became part of British kkoloni. The British help resolve disputes among Muslims and establish a reputation because of being impartial in resolving the internal matters of Muslims. British officials even protect a number of mosques. British Party raises big challenge against a Muslim community by introducing the system of Western education and Christian Education. Therefore, when in 1896 the UK to form a government that provides subsidies Muslim schools with system mix between Western and Muslim curriculum, then the Muslims respond to this as a cultural threat to the West and Christianity and establish their own educational community.
Ibadan town illustrates the different types of Muslim structures. Before the independence of Nigeria, Ibadan has two communities, ie communities Yoruba and Hausa communities. Yoruba Muslim Communist-organized under the authority of a faith and a few leaders to subordinates. Nonetheless, the Muslim community living-Yoruba are not exclusively but rather undergo a good social relations with non-Muslim Yoruba people, including carrying out joint ceremonies in churches and mosques. In addition to the Muslim community, there are also Yoruba Hausa Muslim community.
In the 12th century life in Ibadan Hausa rulers formed a settlement to their own, inhabited by migrants from northern Nigeria, the wives and their gunddik. The British and the majority of the Yoruba support embentukan settlement under a chieftain Hausa as a way to curb migrant communities bum yanh not only involve the vendor, including the merchant, even the thieves, beggars and other persons with social problems.
In the 1940s and 1950s society dominated by village heads and landlords are disturbed by the rise of nationalist movements. Disintregasi Inngris power to force Hausa parati obtain the support of political parties in Nigeria. This would threaten the solidarity kelangsungangan Hausa Hausa and trade monopolies. Thus between 1950 and 1952, after Ibrahim Niass inspired by the visit, the entire Hausa community to join fully with tariqat Tijaniah. The new religious consciousness is also changing the nature of authority in a Hausa community. Now Mallan have an important role as a teacher to straighten out the Muslim religious practices.
Establishment of a national state that leads the country north and south to the same political framework is very conspicuous in the changing political Islam. Nigerian state itself has a history full of riot. Because of the strengthening atnis differences, religious and regional differences, it is very difficult to attempt unification of north and south into nigeri independence. Merseka Nigeria in 1960, but in 1965 a number of government failures and abuses of politicians almost arouse the hostility of all walks of life. In 1966 a variety of turmoil across the country, and perlawananterhadap federal government and the western region, deliver general Ivonsi gain power of government. He attempted to unite the civil service in some wilyah as an attempt to give power to citizens Ibo country. subsequently a number of riots led Colonel Gowon came to power, which memaklumatkan a new constitution that divides Nigeria into twelve small states to meet the interests of minorities and reducing power blocks north and south.
Furthermore, between 1970 and 1975 a number of anxiety southern region of northern domination sparked a new rebellion triggered because of the cooperation between countries north and the existence of a census which showed that the northern region has the majority of the population. In 1976, Gowon's regime was overthrown and replaced by a new government military. After several years vacillated between federal and unitary state concept of Nigeria, the constitutional commission to try to create a national party system, jabatab preisden strong, and the diversity of local small countries who can not resist the central government. In the 1979 general election the party promised menyatukn most private companies and state support for the occupation of state for education. National Party of Nigeria, representing a number of Muslim elites in the north won yet, a new coup in 1984 to return to military rule, Nigeria has not found a stable government, both military and civilian. Behind this instibalitas military post in 1966 to progressively strengthen the country Nigeria. The exploitation of Nigeria led to revenue is very much on the federal state. Political context is changing very striking has changed the role of Islam in Nigeria as a whole.
Then in the 1970s a number of northern Muslim elites have allied with the non-Muslim south to maintain their political positions. Thus in the 1970's there has been increased attention to Nigeria's national identity, as a rival religious and territorial bonds
Mauritania is a country that shows the integration of the most powerful in terms of ethnic identity, national and state identity. Population is entirely Muslim country and identify itself as an Islamic state. Through the treaty of Paris a number of European powers recognize the government of France for Senegal and several regions in the Atlantic Sahara, including some territory that is now a territory of Mauritania. French presence strongly affected the Mauritanian political system. France looked Hassani tribes as political elites, provide subsidies to them, institutionalize their authority as a liaison between the French government and the public.
France also stop the activity that requires citizens of the traditional perampsan Hassani took over grazing and trading activities. This ni resulted in their neglect of religious tribalism which is a part of their traditional functions. Between 1902 and Mauritania in 1934 against the melting away into the French empire. A series of local insurgency can be defeated by the French causing people to stop the rebellion and accept Mauritania collaboration with the French to protect their economic interests and religious.
By the independence of Mauritania, appears much the party among the people of Mauritania. These parties include, Entente Mouritanienne which was established in 1948. The party opposition from Progressiste Mouritanienne Union (UPM). UPM own party split and there is a break-away and formed the Association de la Jeunesse Mouritanienne more loudly demanding independence. The formation of various parties in Mauritania showed that there were disputes within Mauritanian society between the traditional elite and modern politicians. But the main issue is how to preserve the identity of Mauritania to avoid absorption into the Arab nations of North Morocco or Senegal and Sudan in the south. Mauritania's independence in 1958 as the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.
Mauritania's independence by having a unitary national elite who rule society are very segmenter. After independence there unification of political parties between the Entente and UPM, thus forming a new party called Parti du Regroupement Mouritanienne. But in 1961 changed its name to Mouritanienne People Party. Thus the traditional segmenter communities in Mauritania community has been united in a single regime. The divisions of society traisional slowly be overcome through the establishment of a more unified community under a single regime that uses a metropolitan language and promises of Islamic identity.
b. Senegal
Senegal is basically a non-Muslim secular regime that ruled most of the Muslim population. Although this regime is influenced by the political culture of Europe and run by non-Muslim elites, most educated population in tariqat Sufi. Senegal is run through a collaboration between state elites and elite Sufi. Senegal represents an effort to recycle the classic pattern of supportive relations between Muslim countries and Muslim communal organizations.
French government helped support the spread of Islam. By taking a pragmatic attitude towards the Muslims and to regard them as highly civilized group, patterned live productive and capable in the field of administration. French Muslims use as a clerk, and made the village heads sebaga intermediaries and allow running the Islamic law. Under the French government scholars to wander from one place to another, to convey instruction, founded the school and formed the Muslim societies. Despite this worrying French Muslims as their political opponents. For that France tried to keep the Muslim forces are not organized and remains under French control.
France create a law school teacher nyang requires obtaining a permit and memilikii proficiency in speaking French. In 1908 France banned the circulation of newspapers in Arabic and try to develop ethnic and territorial organizations to break the Muslim community. In 1911 the French language shall be used in the Muslim judiciary and the trustee is prohibited to collect zakat. All of the above done to prevent the power of united Islamic community becomes larger.
But all policies are not applied consistently, because after World War I France to switch to policies that provide support for selectively terhdap Muslim figures. As a reward behind it, the Sufi support French efforts in creating a calm situation, army units gather, collect taxes and to increase agricultural production. Muslim elites adjust to the reality of the French government to stop political militancy which was replaced with the activities of worship, education, business economy and establish Muslim tariqat structure.
Tariqat largest and famous in Senegal is Tariqat Muridiyah founded in 1886 by Ahmad Bamba a guardian of the Wolof. He believes the war against France is a vain thing and recommend to switch from war to another job. Sheikh Ibra Fall a Mantang fighters who swear allegiance to Ahmad Bamba, trying to followers of its military into the tariqat Muridiyah. Compliance Ibra Fall marks the colonial domination and the Muslim leadership as the main requirement for the preservation of Wolof society. A mutually supportive relationship between spiritual power and temporal power tariqat endorse the establishment of a more persuasive for a number of Senegalese citizens.
But Ahmad Bamba in a long time suspected by the French as a disseminator of political and territorial aspirations. Because of this he was often exiled in 1895, 1902 and 1907. But in France tahun1912 party can accept that he was a spiritual leader and let him return to economic and Diourbel.
Indeed most of the supporters Tariqat Muridiyah are farmers, but also attract sympathy tariqat people who do not own the land, the young unemployed who worked an internship in agricultural societies. This resulted among supporters tariqat Muridiyah become very popular. In 1912 tariqat has 68,000 supporters and supporters in 1960 grew to 400,000 members. At that moment a third of the citizen-eighth Wolof and Senegalese citizens to be members of this tariqat.
In this tariqat practice of Islam is less important. Although they are fasting of Ramadan, but the obligatory prayers and fasting are other less dperhatikan. Tariqat Fall (muridiyah branch) is strikingly non-orthodox and non-compromise. The descendants of Ibrahim fall not perform Islamic prayers or rituals lainny, but they believe the attitude of resignation and work, and through gentle attitude and practice of magic they could gain the blessings of religion.
At the same time when society was organized by the Senegalese Sufi tariqat, among professional and non-Muslim urban elite took over the struggle for independence. Senegal has a history rooted political elite sejaj 19th century. Elite Senegal involved in the government of France, was working in Europe and eventually inherited the power of the state. With the dawn of Senegal's independence in 1960, Senegal was ruled by non-Muslim elite French education that dipimin by Leopold Senghor and Progressiste Senegalaise Union party. But Senegal is a country where people united by language Wolof is used by 80% of the population and because most of the citizens of Senegal is Muslim.
Senegal is an independent government headed by a president elected who raised a number of ministers. Inside there is an autonomous court. Senghor led from 1960 until 1980. In 1964, Senghor menkonsolidasi strengths and eliminate its opponents, in 1966 he decided to Senegal as a one-party socialist state. 1966 to 1976 UPS became the sole legal party in the country of Senegal, and a number of tariqat unite ourselves as a faction within the ruling party. From the years 1976-1980 Senghir allow the formation of multi-party politics and elections. After the dismissal of Senghor, Senegal was ruled for the first time a Muslim is Abdu Diouf.
Post-independence Senegal is a secular country ayang overwhelmingly Muslim. This population was organized into a number of Sufi tariqat which is a base for rural economic organizations for the citizens. Regime of the country is run in collaboration with religious leaders who became an intermediary with the public. A number of Sufi tariqat economic organizing prodiuktif nuts and gives political support to officials in the interior. Muslim Tariqat subsequently become an integral part of Senegal's political system.
At the same time, urbanization that occurred in Senegal, causing rapid population growth began to doubt authority figures magical hinterland. In some cities show interest in the Arabic language and forms of Islamic belief that the practice of emphasizing prayer, pilgrimage, ethical behavior, and intellectual interests adjacent to the suppression of religious emotion. The move was to form the Muslim Cultural Union (Muslim cultural associations) in 1953. Society is sponsoring the teaching of Arabic and Muslim schools, against colonialism, capitalism, and the influence of Sufi inland.
c. Nigeria
Islam in northern Nigeria has evolved as the religion of the elite since the 15th century. Sokoto Caliphate consolidate the identity of the Muslim political elite and make Islam the religion of the majority population. The emir is responsible for implementing justice, they raised Mallam as the prayer leader, led in the celebration and suggestions regarding religious law. Unofficially the emirs became an arbiter in local disputes.
In 1922 the British built as a high school college Katsina modern. English lessons be compulsory, and the Arabic language is inserted into part of the curriculum. Teaching Quran delivered by the Mallam to the salary of the British government. Kano Law School curriculum taught entirely Islamic. Although politically conservative, the British government evoke major changes in the economic and social. Development of road and rail network, development of agricultural exports such as nuts and cotton, farmers deliver northern Nigeria to the international market.
Economic development raises many important changes in social structure. Kano became the center of northern Nigeria market and as a thriving merchant center. Thus, the city population was divided into many ethnic groups, languages, and class. The structure is divided into an elite class of the ruling Fulani, Hausa traders wealthy, senior civil servants, middle-class merchants and the general public.
Over a century more, Lagos became the main center and the movement of the Muslim community. In 1861 the city became part of British kkoloni. The British help resolve disputes among Muslims and establish a reputation because of being impartial in resolving the internal matters of Muslims. British officials even protect a number of mosques. British Party raises big challenge against a Muslim community by introducing the system of Western education and Christian Education. Therefore, when in 1896 the UK to form a government that provides subsidies Muslim schools with system mix between Western and Muslim curriculum, then the Muslims respond to this as a cultural threat to the West and Christianity and establish their own educational community.
Ibadan town illustrates the different types of Muslim structures. Before the independence of Nigeria, Ibadan has two communities, ie communities Yoruba and Hausa communities. Yoruba Muslim Communist-organized under the authority of a faith and a few leaders to subordinates. Nonetheless, the Muslim community living-Yoruba are not exclusively but rather undergo a good social relations with non-Muslim Yoruba people, including carrying out joint ceremonies in churches and mosques. In addition to the Muslim community, there are also Yoruba Hausa Muslim community.
In the 12th century life in Ibadan Hausa rulers formed a settlement to their own, inhabited by migrants from northern Nigeria, the wives and their gunddik. The British and the majority of the Yoruba support embentukan settlement under a chieftain Hausa as a way to curb migrant communities bum yanh not only involve the vendor, including the merchant, even the thieves, beggars and other persons with social problems.
In the 1940s and 1950s society dominated by village heads and landlords are disturbed by the rise of nationalist movements. Disintregasi Inngris power to force Hausa parati obtain the support of political parties in Nigeria. This would threaten the solidarity kelangsungangan Hausa Hausa and trade monopolies. Thus between 1950 and 1952, after Ibrahim Niass inspired by the visit, the entire Hausa community to join fully with tariqat Tijaniah. The new religious consciousness is also changing the nature of authority in a Hausa community. Now Mallan have an important role as a teacher to straighten out the Muslim religious practices.
Establishment of a national state that leads the country north and south to the same political framework is very conspicuous in the changing political Islam. Nigerian state itself has a history full of riot. Because of the strengthening atnis differences, religious and regional differences, it is very difficult to attempt unification of north and south into nigeri independence. Merseka Nigeria in 1960, but in 1965 a number of government failures and abuses of politicians almost arouse the hostility of all walks of life. In 1966 a variety of turmoil across the country, and perlawananterhadap federal government and the western region, deliver general Ivonsi gain power of government. He attempted to unite the civil service in some wilyah as an attempt to give power to citizens Ibo country. subsequently a number of riots led Colonel Gowon came to power, which memaklumatkan a new constitution that divides Nigeria into twelve small states to meet the interests of minorities and reducing power blocks north and south.
Furthermore, between 1970 and 1975 a number of anxiety southern region of northern domination sparked a new rebellion triggered because of the cooperation between countries north and the existence of a census which showed that the northern region has the majority of the population. In 1976, Gowon's regime was overthrown and replaced by a new government military. After several years vacillated between federal and unitary state concept of Nigeria, the constitutional commission to try to create a national party system, jabatab preisden strong, and the diversity of local small countries who can not resist the central government. In the 1979 general election the party promised menyatukn most private companies and state support for the occupation of state for education. National Party of Nigeria, representing a number of Muslim elites in the north won yet, a new coup in 1984 to return to military rule, Nigeria has not found a stable government, both military and civilian. Behind this instibalitas military post in 1966 to progressively strengthen the country Nigeria. The exploitation of Nigeria led to revenue is very much on the federal state. Political context is changing very striking has changed the role of Islam in Nigeria as a whole.
Then in the 1970s a number of northern Muslim elites have allied with the non-Muslim south to maintain their political positions. Thus in the 1970's there has been increased attention to Nigeria's national identity, as a rival religious and territorial bonds
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